Abstract: The title compound 3-(diphenylamino)-4-ethoxycyclobut-3-ene-1,2-dione (6), was prepared by reaction of diphenylamine (2) with diethyl squarate (DES; 5) as part of our ongoing studies on monosquarate-amides. Following purification and recrystallisation, the product was isolated as a green crystalline solid. Its structure was established by spectroscopic methods including: FTIR, ¹H NMR, ¹³C NMR and HRMS and was unambiguously confirmed by single crystal X-ray diffraction. This work provides access to a previously unreported diphenylamino substituted squaric acid derivative.

Abstract: Heparin is a highly sulfated polyelectrolyte, and its properties depend a lot on its shape in solution. In this study, we closely examined the structural behaviour of UVC-irradiated low-molecular-weight heparin. By using controlled photodegradation, we created native, small, and ultra-small molar mass fractions, which allowed us to study how structural properties change with molecular weight. We examined how molar mass, radius of gyration, second virial coefficient, and critical overlap concentration are related to one another to understand different conformational states. Our results showed that as molar mass decreased, the chain diameter and persistence length also dropped, while the overlap concentration increased. This means the hydrodynamic volume went down and the chains became more flexible. The positive second virial coefficient values showed that polymer–solvent interactions remained favourable after photo-tailing. The scaling exponents suggest that degraded heparin behaves as a semi-flexible polyelectrolyte and adopts an extended-coil shape in water with electrolytes. Further analysis showed that the characteristic ratio and stiffness of the chains decreased as the chains were broken by irradiation. Overall, UVC phototailing provides a reliable way to modify the structure of these molecules while maintaining solution stability. These findings show a clear link between reduced molecular weight and changes in shape, which is useful for developing better low-molecular-weight heparins for pharmaceutical and medical use.

Abstract: Radiotherapy remains one of the main pillars of cancer treatment and is used in more than half of all oncological patients. Despite continuous technological improvements, ionizing radiation inevitably causes damage to surrounding healthy tissues, leading to acute and chronic complications affecting multiple organs, including the skin, mucosa, heart, lungs, and gastrointestinal tract. Radiation-induced injuries significantly impair patients’ quality of life, limit therapeutic doses, and represent a major unmet clinical challenge. Hydrogels have emerged as a highly promising class of biomaterials for the management of radiation-associated tissue damage due to their high water content, tunable mechanical properties, biocompatibility, and ability to mimic the extracellular matrix. In recent years, significant advances have been made in the design of functional hydrogels, including stimuli-responsive, injectable, adhesive, and bioactive systems capable of delivering drugs, growth factors, antioxidants, or living cells. This review provides a comprehensive overview of radiation-induced injuries in different organs and summarizes current strategies employing hydrogel-based systems for their treatment. We discuss both therapeutic and preventive applications of hydrogels, highlighting their potential to protect healthy tissues, reduce inflammation and fibrosis, and promote tissue regeneration.

Abstract: Cosmetic preservatives should have reduced percutaneous absorption to lower the risk of systemic exposure and skin irritation. In this work, Escherichia coli β-galactosidase was used to enzymatically modify several of the commonly used cosmetic preservatives to produce their corresponding galactosylated derivatives: benzyl alcohol β-D-galactopyranoside 7, 2-phenoxyethanol β-D-galactopyranoside 8, chlorphenesin β-D-galactopyranoside 9, 1,2-hexanediol β-D-galactopyranoside 10, 1,2-octanediol β-D-galactopyranoside 11, and 2-phenylethyl β-D-galactopyranoside 12. HPLC and NMR spectroscopy were used to analyze the synthesized derivatives. The Franz diffusion cell assay was used to evaluate skin penetration. 2-phenoxyethanol (PE), chlorphenesin (CPN), and 2-phenylethanol (PhE), exhibited measurable skin penetration with flux values ranging from 3.82 to 7.34 µg·h⁻¹·cm⁻² and permeability coefficients (Kp) between 1.38 and 3.00 ×10⁻³ cm·h⁻¹. In contrast, their galactosylated derivatives showed markedly reduced permeation under the same experimental conditions. Moreover, brine shrimp lethality assays indicated that galactosylated derivatives had significantly higher LD₅₀ values (1.6–2.1 mg/mL) than their parent compounds (0.1–0.79 mg/mL), suggesting lower cytotoxicity. These findings suggest that enzymatic galactosylation can significantly decrease skin permeability and the toxicity of cosmetic preservatives, highlighting its potential as a strategy to improve the safety of cosmetic ingredients.

Abstract: Background/Objectives: Several studies have confirmed a high prevalence of obesity among both children and adults, with significant consequences on human health. This study is aimed to develop and test effective tools (i.e., a dedicated website and social media) to promote healthy lifestyles, with the goal of re-engaging Italian families with the Mediterranean diet, an effective approach for preventing cardiovascular diseases. Methods: The study included 329 children (149 boys, 180 girls) and 122 female adults who underwent nutritional assessment and lifestyle surveys, before and after our educational intervention. Results: At baseline, Body Mass Index (BMI) analysis revealed a high incidence of overweight and obesity among children (55%), adolescents (56%), and adults (48%). Our action targeted improvements in eating habits and lifestyle in all the groups. After 210 days, adolescents showed the largest improvement in BMI, with a 15% reduction in overweight and obesity, while we observed a 2% and 11% reduction in children and adults, respectively. Furthermore, physical activity adherence increased by 9.4%. Excellent adherence to the Mediterranean diet was observed, both in children (+14.6%) and adults (+24.6%), with particular improvements in vegetable, fruit, and fish consumption. Conclusions: This study confirms the effectiveness of social media and digital platforms as tools for health promotion and nutrition education when managed by health professionals.

Abstract: This work introduces a novel conceptual framework that integrates gnomonic visualization techniques with cosmological geometry. Specifically, we reinterpret the gnomonic holography of three-dimensional crystal structures onto a two-dimensional plane within the three-dimensional spatial sector of the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker (FLRW) metric, formulated following the Landau–Lifshitz approach. Within this framework, the surface of a four-dimensional hypermanifold (a 4D sphere) is heuristically and conjecturally interpreted as exhibiting topological features analogous to the “inside–outside” structure of a Klein bottle. This analogy is not intended as a strict topological identification, but rather as an illustrative conceptual device to motivate geometric intuition about global structure. This geometrical perspective provides a foundation for analyzing the mass–energy budget of the Universe as determined by the Planck mission. We examine the present mass–energy composition—including the relative contributions of visible (baryonic) matter and dark energy, identified here with the zero-point field (ZPF)—within a differential geometric setting. These components are ultimately represented through a gnomonic holography–based formulation of the Planck observational mass–energy budget.

Abstract: Background: Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) affects approximately 1-2% of children worldwide, yet its etiology remains incompletely understood. Emerging evidence suggests that offspring of parents with autoimmune diseases show elevated autism prevalence. Notably, children of parents with psoriasis (OR 1.59), type 1 diabetes (OR 1.49-2.36), and rheumatoid arthritis (OR 1.51) demonstrate particularly strong associations.Hypothesis: I propose that autism may be conceptualized as an immune-metabolic disorder in which multiple pro-inflammatory cytokines—including TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, and IFN-γ—act through distinct molecular pathways yet converge on a common endpoint of mitochondrial dysfunction and cerebral energy deficiency. This convergence implies that it is the cumulative prenatal inflammatory burden, rather than any single cytokine, that drives the energy deficit. The resulting energy shortage may impair three critical processes: (1) synaptic pruning during neurodevelopment, (2) real-time social cognition including gaze processing and emotion recognition, and (3) protein synthesis of critical synaptic scaffolding molecules.The proposed mechanism is a chronic low-grade pro-inflammatory cytokine state—clinically silent, yet biologically consequential—arising from inherited inflammatory susceptibility and/or direct fetal exposure to elevated maternal inflammatory signaling during pregnancy. Unlike high-grade inflammatory states in which maternal and fetal survival are acutely threatened, low-grade cytokine elevations may proceed without conspicuous symptoms or detectable clinical signs, particularly when chronic. Although seemingly quiet, such a state may be insufficient to endanger maternal or fetal survival, yet sufficient to disrupt fetal brain bioenergetics during sensitive gestational windows—producing neonates who appear outwardly healthy at term while their neurodevelopmental trajectories have already been altered.I further propose that the well-documented "firstborn effect" in autism reflects maternal immune maladaptation during primigravid pregnancies. Additionally, for cases without parental autoimmune history, a speculative secondary mechanism is proposed: mitonuclear immune conflict, where paternal immune genes may partially recognize maternal mitochondria as non-self, generating endogenous pro-inflammatory signaling.Implications: This framework may provide an integrative account of disparate observations about autism pathophysiology and suggests that pro-inflammatory immune pathways and mitochondrial protection strategies merit further investigation for potential risk modification, particularly in pregnancies identified as high-risk through parental autoimmune or inflammatory disease. If supported by sufficient subsequent evidence, prenatal cytokine monitoring and corresponding clinical management—currently not part of routine obstetric care—may merit consideration by the medical community as a candidate strategy for autism risk reduction.

Abstract: The rapid advancement of large language models (LLMs) has introduced unprecedented capabilities in human-AI interaction, yet it has also created new opportunities for exploitation and manipulation. This systematic literature review investigates the psychological tactics behind the exploitation of LLMs, establishing connections between human deception and AI manipulation. This study seeks to integrate prior investigations into the methods by which adversarial entities manipulate LLMs, identify deficiencies in present knowledge, and propose avenues for subsequent research to address these threats. The review methodically organizes research into core dimensions such as deception and manipulation in LLMs, vulnerabilities related to circumventing restrictions, attacks based on psychological manipulation, and ethical implications, while also examining the cognitive and behavioral dimensions of LLM engagements. The findings indicate large language models are vulnerable to many adversarial approaches, numerous resembling conventional human deceit methods, thus highlighting the necessity for resilient detection and assessment strategies. The results highlight the importance of interdisciplinary methods, integrating aspects of cognitive psychology, computer science, and ethics, to address the growing difficulties of LLM misuse. In conclusion, this analysis advances comprehension of the mental processes underlying LLM control and presents practical suggestions for improving model security and robustness in effective implementations.

Abstract: Mid-stage embryos of different species often look more alike than early embryos or adults. Early and late development diverge, leading to a broad-narrow-broad hourglass pattern. I propose that mid-embryogenesis coincides with protocol waists, narrow interfaces that standardize communication between otherwise distinct processes. For example, continuous spatial geometry is translated into a morphogen gradient protocol readable by gene regulatory networks. This architecture arises because the physical space-time geometry of early development cannot directly instruct late gene regulatory programs. They require a translator. The need for domain translation distinguishes protocols from generic canalization and bottlenecks. Translation protocols explain the hourglass: a protocol screens off upstream inputs, allowing early diversification, and decouples downstream responses, enabling late radiation. A protocol waist often remains evolutionarily frozen as the essential common language that keeps these diverging halves compatible. Perturbations of protocol waists tend to cause widespread system failure, concentrating fragility. Protocol waists provide a framework to interpret domain translators, such as morphogen gradients for geometry-to-molecules, Notch/Delta lateral inhibition for topology-to-fates, the vertebrate segmentation clock for time-to-space, and Hox axial patterning for position-to-identity. Sequential domain translators form a protocol stack, matching the common architecture of robust complex systems in engineering.

Abstract: Background: Persistent cosmological tensions — particularly in the Hubble constant (H0) — motivate physically grounded alternatives to ΛCDM. We propose the Gibbs En- ergy Redistribution Theory (GERT): a thermodynamic framework in which matter- and Λ-like contributions are promoted to density-controlled functions derived from the Gibbs free energy criterion. GERT interprets dark components as emergent manifestations of a single Primordial Enthalpic Reservoir, without new fields or fine-tuning. Methods: The dynamical H(z) is obtained by promoting FLRW source terms to thermodynamic functions fM (ρ) and fL(ρ), calibrated via MCMC against CMB, BAO, and Type Ia supernova data. Model complexity is reduced from 12 to 2 free parameters through thermodynamic priors. Results: The two-parameter implementation achieves χ2/dof ≈ 0.99 and infers H0 ≈ 72.5 km s−1 Mpc−1, consistent with local distance-ladder determinations. GERT outper forms ΛCDM on WAIC and AIC. Conclusions: GERT provides a thermodynamically causal account of cosmic evolution. The frozen parameter set constitutes a quantitative prediction accessible to future low-redshift probes.

Abstract: German chamomile (Matricaria recutita L.) is an important medicinal and aromatic crop in Ukraine, where it’s dried flower heads (Chamomillae anthodium) are officially registered and standardized according to the European Pharmacopoeia. Despite its economic relevance, information on population-level variability in essential oil yield and chemical composition remains limited. This study evaluated twenty wild chamomile populations distributed across major agroclimatic regions of Ukraine to identify valuable chemotypes for cultivation, breeding, and commercial standardization. Clus-ter analysis revealed a partial relationship between flower head mass and both qualitative and quantitative essential oil traits, while environmental conditions showed only weak influence. Over all, Ukrainian wild chamomile predominantly belonged to Type B chemotype (/-/-α-bisabolol oxide A > /-/-α-bisabolol > /-/-α-bisabololoxide B). Southern populations with medium-sized flower heads and moderate oil content were dominated by the phytotherapeutic valuable /-/-α-bisabolol chemotype. These findings provide a scientific basis for chemotype-based selection, region-specific cultivation, and improvement of commercial chamomile quality and its products. In the conditions of special agricultural production in Ukraine, the technology of growing medicinal chamomile is not sufficiently developed. New agrotechnical issues are being studied in accordance with adaptive varieties, which are the domestic Perlyna Lisostepu, Azulena and the foreign: Bodegold (Germany), Zloty Lan (Poland). However, these are chamomile varieties with an average content of essential oil, which has a high content of bisabololoxides. However, the needs for technologies for harvesting and processing chamomile drugs are currently not sufficiently resolved. These facts affect the low visual and herbal quality of teas in the consumer network, which are produced by the Ukrainian companies.

Abstract: We present and analyze a new weighted family of iterative methods for solving systems of nonlinear equations. The proposed schemes are constructed as a generalization of the fifth-order method of Singh et al. by incorporating appropriate weight functions into the correction step, thereby generating a flexible class of methods that includes the original scheme as a special case. Sufficient conditions on the weight functions are established to guarantee fifth-order local convergence. Several admissible choices are presented to illustrate the versatility of the family. The practical performance of the proposed variants is investigated on a collection of large-scale nonlinear systems. Furthermore, the family is applied to the nonlinear algebraic system obtained from the finite-difference discretization of a stationary one-dimensional viscous Burgers problem. Numerical experiments indicate that the proposed methods provide a competitive and accurate alternative for solving nonlinear systems of this type.

Abstract: The current trajectory of Artificial Intelligence (AI) development represents a critical phase transition from a tenable academic pursuit to an untenable industrial behemoth, and ultimately toward an unsustainable environmental burden. In this review, we redefine waste management in sensu lato, encompassing digital redundancy, cognitive underutilization, and the physical e-waste generated by rapid hardware obsolescence. We argue that the current AI paradigm suffers from a ‘Curse of Dimensionality’ not only in its feature space but in its ecological footprint, necessitating a return to Algorithmic Parsimony—rooted in the Minimum Description Length principle [1] and William of Ockham’s razor—as a fundamental pillar of international sustainability standards. By analyzing the interplay between the outcry over blatantly unsustainable data centers [2–5] and emerging green AI frameworks [6,7], this paper provides a roadmap for a mutually uplifting synergy. We further introduce The Symbiotic Policy Covenant—a concrete policy intervention framework comprising f ive pillars: Algorithmic Parsimony Standards, Expanded Waste Taxonomy, AI Equity Safeguards, Paradigm Transition Investment, and International Regulatory Alignment. We conclude that true sustainability in the age of AI requires a holistic adherence to global standards [8,9] that transcend mere climate concerns, fostering a safer, more equitable, and durable integration of machine intelligence with ecological stewardship.

Abstract:

Background: The intake of mineral water for therapeutic purposes (crenotherapy) in digestive system disorders is a long-established practice, even though there are still few controlled clinical studies confirming the effect of natural mineral water rich in bicarbonate. Objective: To verify whether the daily intake of Aqua 3 bicarbonate natural mineral water is able to improve digestion in a population of patients with functional dyspepsia and gastroesophageal reflux disease symptoms. Methods: Patients had a diagnosis of functional dyspepsia formulated in accordance with the Rome IV criteria and were subjected to three periods of 2 weeks: tap water (wash-out), bicarbonate natural mineral water, and oligomineral water. The mineral water bottles had their labels removed. Primary efficacy endpoint: improvement in the PAGI-SYM total. Secondary endpoints: improvements in the PAGI-SYM subscales, in the use of antacids, and in the self-assessment of efficacy on digestion. Results: The PAGI-SYM total score and the six subscales significantly decreased after bicarbonate mineral water intake, while they significantly increased after oligomineral water supplementation. The antacid use was significantly different comparing the decrease after oligomineral water versus the increase after oligomineral water. In addition, the score of the subjective assessment of effectiveness of the patient’s digestion was significantly better after the intake of bicarbonate than after oligomineral water. Conclusions: In line with the evidence reported in the literature, the findings of this study provide additional support for recommending natural bicarbonate mineral water as a symptomatic treatment for functional dyspepsia and gastroesophageal reflux disease. The intake of Aqua 3 bicarbonate mineral water proved to be a simple, safe, and natural intervention capable of improving digestive symptoms in patients with functional dyspepsia and reflux-related disorders, while promoting the digestive process.

Abstract: Central venous pressure (CVP) has long been a cornerstone of hemodynamic monitoring, traditionally interpreted as a surrogate of intravascular volume and cardiac preload. However, current physiological and clinical evidence clearly demonstrates that CVP does not assess volume status and does not reliably predict fluid responsiveness (FR). Ac-cordingly, its role as a target for guiding fluid therapy has been progressively aban-doned. This narrative review retraces the evolution of CVP interpretation, from its physiological foundations to its role in contemporary clinical practice. While early re-suscitation strategies relied on predefined CVP thresholds, this approach has been abandoned. Despite these limitations, CVP remains widely used due to its simplicity and historical familiarity. Importantly, modern perspectives redefine CVP not as a static in-dicator of volume status, but as a valuable marker of systemic venous congestion and right ventricular load. In this context, CVP retains clinical utility when used for waveform interpretation, assessment of venous congestion, and, most importantly, as part of an integrated, multimodal hemodynamic monitoring strategy.

Abstract: Time-domain dynamic full-field optical coherence tomography (D-FFOCT) is a powerful label-free imaging modality that enables functional visualization of cellular activity in living tissues with subcellular resolution. However, its sensitivity remains a major limitation for imaging highly scattering three-dimensional (3D) biological models such as retinal organoids, where incoherent background and inefficient optical flux distribution reduce dynamic contrast and limit imaging depth. In this work, we introduce a ratio-free optical configuration for time-domain D-FFOCT that enables continuous tuning of the sample-to-reference field ratio while minimizing photon losses and suppressing parasitic reflections. This polarization-based architecture allows optimal redistribution of optical flux according to sample scattering conditions and improves sensitivity under both power-limited and dose-limited conditions. Compared with conventional non-polarizing beam splitter configurations, the proposed approach provides a √ 2-fold (3 dB) sensitivity improvement through optical optimization alone. In addition, we investigate for the first time the use of partial field illumination (PFI) in time-domain D-FFOCT to reduce incoherent background arising from multiple scattering. In retinal organoids imaged at 120 µm depth, PFI yields up to a 14.5-fold (23.2 dB) increase in dynamic signal sensitivity, while preserving functional contrast. When combined, ratio-free detection and PFI provide a cumulative sensitivity improvement of 20.5-fold (26.2 dB). These gains enable improved visualization of photoreceptor precursor organization, rosette structures, and Müller glial cell dynamics in both 3D retinal organoids and 2D cell cultures. This work establishes a practical framework for sensitivity optimization in D-FFOCT and expands its potential for functional imaging, disease modeling, and live-cell monitoring in complex biological systems.

Abstract: Lipedema is a painful, chronic and progressive disorder of subcutaneous adipose tissue characterized by disproportionate, symmetrical fat accumulation in the extremities—typically the legs and less often the arms—while sparing hands and feet. It is clinically distinct from obesity and lymphoedema, affects almost exclusively women, and often exacerbates during hormonal transition phases. This paper proposes a unifying pathophysiological concept in which lipedema reflects a regenerative imbalance of adipose tissue. A genetically and estrogen-modulated increase in endothelial permeability (“leaky vessels”) is suggested to activate perivascular/mural adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs), thereby initiating coupled angiogenesis and adipogenesis. The stromal vascular fraction (SVF) is described as a central mediator, with SVF-derived extracellular vesicles and characteristic microRNAs promoting adipocyte hyperplasia and hypertrophy and leading to large, metabolically less active adipocytes. The organism attempts to counterbalance this surplus through inflammatory activation of mast cells and macrophages; however, inefficient clearance of excess adipocytes (including “crown-like” structures) sustains inflammation and pain. Progressive adipose expansion may compress lymphatic capillaries and precollectors, resulting in dermal and subdermal lymphatic congestion and contributing to oedema and symptom progression. Increased aromatase activity and local estrogen availability are discussed as additional amplifiers of adipogenesis and inflammatory remodeling. Finally, lymphatic-sparing liposuction is outlined as a mechanistically plausible intervention that can reduce tissue pressure, improve lymphatic drainage, and alleviate key symptoms.

Abstract: Only redshifted, and not blueshifted, cosmological signals are observed. Yet, redshift alone does not distinguish the past lightcone of an expanding Universe from the future lightcone of a contracting one. In practice, the identification of the observed redshifted branch with the observational past is set primarily by electromagnetic radiation, whose retarded character is independently established in controlled physics, albeit over non-cosmological scales. From that perspective, the observed cosmological arrow is not separable from the causal/radiative prescription used to interpret the signals. This effective entanglement between the cosmological and the radiative arrows should nevertheless be distinguished from the notion of arrow used in the present work. Here instead, the relevant arrow is not thermodynamic but kinematic; it is defined by the symmetry or asymmetry of background lightcone observables under ξ↔−ξ – where ξ≡ln(1+z) and z is the redshift – a criterion motivated directly by the time-reversal-symmetric special-relativistic longitudinal Doppler shift. Equivalently, the arrow considered here is the observed redshift/blueshift asymmetry of cosmological lightcone signals; retarded observations of an expanding FRW Universe are in the redshifted branch, whereas the opposite rapidity orientation would correspond to the blueshifted branch. This naturally suggests using rapidity-reversal symmetry as the redshift-space no-arrow condition when passing from SR to Friedmann–Robertson–Walker (FRW) cosmology, where the empty Milne Universe is a bridging borderline case. In fact, the viewpoint advocated here is that ξ-symmetry/asymmetry is more fundamental than t-symmetry/asymmetry simply because the former is more readily related to cosmological observables. It is shown here that generic non-empty FRW Universes possess an intrinsic ξ-asymmetry already at the background level, independently of entropy, coarse-graining, structure growth, or a Past Hypothesis.

Abstract: Machine learning and deep learning models trained on a source domain often suffer from performance degradation when deployed to new target domains due to domain shifts arising from differences in data distributions, acquisition conditions, or temporal variations. Domain adaptation addresses this issue by transferring knowledge from labeled source data to unlabeled target data. However, acquiring labels for target-domain samples is often costly or impractical in real-world applications. To improve label efficiency, active domain adaptation (ADA) and active continual learning (ACL) integrate active learning strategies into domain adaptation and continual learning frameworks. ADA selectively queries informative target samples to enhance adaptation performance, while ACL extends this paradigm to sequential settings, enabling models to adapt to evolving data streams while mitigating catastrophic forgetting. This survey provides a systematic review of ADA and ACL, focusing on their advances and applications. We further examine extensions of ADA such as source-free ADA, integration with semi-supervised learning, and advanced techniques for handling challenging adaptation scenarios. In addition, we summarize applications across computer vision, medical imaging, robotics, natural language processing, scientific and engineering tasks. Finally, we discuss open challenges and future directions, including robust adaptation under complex distribution shifts and reliable semi-supervised adaptation.

Abstract: Additive manufacturing using vat photopolymerization (VPP) resin materials has gained attention for fabricating dental prostheses; however, the effects of material type and build angle on their properties remain unclear. We compared the mechanical properties of two filler-containing VPP hybrid resins, SprintRay Ceramic Crown (CC) and OnX Tough 2 (OT), with those of a conventional polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) disc material, and evaluated the influence of build angle on surface characteristics, dimensional accuracy, and mechanical performance. Specimens were fabricated using a DLP system at build angles of 0°, 45°, and 90°. Vickers hardness, surface morphology and roughness, dimensional deviations, flexural strength, elastic modulus, and fracture energy were assessed according to relevant standards. CC exhibited significantly higher hardness and elastic modulus than PMMA and OT, whereas OT showed the highest fracture energy. Surface morphology and roughness were strongly affected by build angle, with 45° producing distinct periodic patterns and increased roughness. Dimensional evaluation revealed a tendency toward overbuilding, particularly in the vertical direction at 45°. Flexural properties were also influenced by build angle, with 45° generally providing favorable performance. Both material composition and build angle affect VPP-fabricated dental resin performance, highlighting the importance of appropriate material and processing selection for clinical applications.