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Investigating Factors that Impact Employee Turnover in the Medical Device Industry in the United Arab Emirates

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03 January 2023

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04 January 2023

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Abstract
The United Arab Emirates (UAE) has established itself as the medical device industry’s preferred regional center. Major multinational corporations either have a regional subsidiary or are planning to open up a principal office in the UAE to expand their business. Employees in the industry are in high demand as new opportunities open up frequently and that causes challenges to companies, namely employee turnover. This research helps bridge the gap found in the literature by investigating the factors that impact employee turnover in the medical device industry in the UAE. These factors were tested with their subsequent sub-factors. Using a quantitative approach, the study surveyed 230 participants from 47 medical device companies in the UAE. The result of one-way ANOVA demonstrated a significant relationship between employee salary and employee turnover. The linear regression analysis was statistically significant between perceived external prestige, location, flextime, organizational justice, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, extrinsic rewards, career advancement, lack of alternatives, constituent attachments, and employee turnover. These findings indicate the need for a strategy utilizing these factors for existing and new medical device companies in the UAE to prevent high employee turnover or limit it at least.
Keywords: 
Subject: Business, Economics and Management  -   Human Resources and Organizations

1. Introduction

Lasrado and Pereira examined the role of human capital in an organization and identified that people are important in the workplace because they play a critical role in achieving business excellence [1]. Similarly, Hussain et al. described how employees are far more valuable than customers to any organization [2]. In another publication, Singh acknowledged how important employees have become and how they are the most valuable and productive asset to any organization [3].
With human capital becoming the central focus for organizations, companies started to compete to retain and hire valuable employees using strategic human resources policies [4]. This aspect has shifted the power towards valuable employees that can demand better contractual terms or find it elsewhere. Employee turnover is the replacement cycle for which a new employee must be recruited and trained any time a job is vacant because an employee left, whether voluntarily or involuntarily [5]. The negative impact of turnover has been the discussion by almost every industry’s top management since it shows that turnover is one of the most costly and challenging workforce problems that companies face [6].
Employees give several reasons for leaving their jobs [7], and this article investigates some of these driving factors in the Medical Device Industry in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). In April 2021, the UAE cabinet approved the UAE Talent Attraction and Retention Strategy, which contributes to the UAE’s leading position as a desirable place for living, working, and investing [8]. The UAE cabinet emphasized that attracting more talent and innovative minds is a critical aspect since the employee turnover rate is relatively high at 28 percent in the UAE [9]. The UAE’s medical device sector is one of the six target sectors set by Dubai Industrial Strategy 2030 and thus is a major sector that makes its employees of major focus [10].
This article uses a literature-based research approach to determine and investigate the factors that impact employee turnover in the medical device industry in the UAE.

1.1. Employee Turnover

Employee turnover refers to the employees who leave the business organizations and stop performing their operations because of multiple factors [11]. Employees, who either leave their organization on their own or are let go, can cause challenges for the internal working competency of the organization as well as disruptions in the operations, performance, and dynamics of the workplace. According to empirical research by Kumar [12], the impact of employee turnover can be negative or positive for the organization’s performance.
There are two types of staff turnover: voluntary and involuntary, irrespective of the organization [13]. However, there are several reasons a company could experience staff turnover within each of the categories. Involuntary turnover occurs when businesses dismiss or lay off workers [14]. In contrast, voluntary turnover happens when workers resign or leave and choose to stop their engagement with their organization on their own [14,15,16]. As a result, the most crucial variation among the two categories of “turnover” is who started the process.
Although the phrase “turnover” has a negative perception, it is not necessarily a bad thing [17]. Previous literature acknowledged this by stating that the positive effects of employee turnover include the improvement in the overall potential of the organization, improved productivity and avoidance of complacent work, and millennial changes. Most of the time, the positive implications result from involuntary employee turnover. That’s because the management lets go of employees due to declining productivity and performance [18].
On the other hand, James argued that employee turnover affects the entire organization negatively, causing a decline in business operations [19]. Different research found other factors that are affecting organizational performance negatively due to employee turnover. First, Zhang found that it affects the performance and productivity of the business as losing employees within any organization leads to a decline in productivity and sales [13]. Similarly, Ju and Li highlighted that there is a direct relationship between employee turnover and a decrease in productivity which can cause both financial and non-financial challenges for organizations [20].

1.2. Factors Impacting Employee Turnover

Employees give several reasons for leaving their jobs [7]. These factors differ between internal and external factors and Hausknecht et al. identified the 12 key retention factors that have been reported in the literature over the past 60 years [21]. These 12 factors can be seen in Table 1. This research investigated the impact of these factors on employee turnover in the medical device industry in the UAE.
In addition to these factors, the research investigated the demographics‘ impact on employee turnover too. Even though previous researchers have linked age and gender to turnover [7,22], Soomro argued that there is a lot of disagreement when it comes to studies on turnover intentions related to gender [23]. Moreover, Hayes disputes any significant relationship between gender or education level and employee turnover [24]. The demographic factors that were discussed in the literature as having an impact on employee turnover included age, gender, and education level of employees.
The employee profile factor is made up of a combination of employee investment factors and non-work-related factors. Tawana et al. identified that the length of time that an employee intends to stay at the organization, a job tenure, redefines the intention of that employee to leave [25]. This is referred to as the employee investment which means the perception employees have about the length of time they would like to spend with the organization at the time of hiring. On the contrary, in the research by Hayes, the results did not show any relationship between job tenure and turnover intention [24].
Workagegn conducted many studies to investigate job-related factors and their relationship to employee turnover and what makes employees quit their jobs [26]. The author identified the job-related sub-factors as the perceived external prestige of the organization, the location of the job, and the working hours flexibility. Several studies had acknowledged the impact of job-related factors on employee turnover in different industries [26,27,28].
Most organizations’ managers do not give performance appraisals and honest feedback to employees [29]. The lack of feedback and appraisal results in affecting their job satisfaction and gives them a sense of organizational injustice. Kim et al. validated that organizational justice is negatively correlated with turnover intention [30]. Meanwhile, Kurniawaty et al. discovered that banks need to implement job satisfaction policy tools to reduce turnover intention among employees [31].
Mathieu et al. thoroughly surveyed 763 employees from small, medium, and large-sized enterprises and identified that organizational commitment had a direct effect in explaining turnover intention [32]. Likewise, research by Ekhsan and Kalidass and Bahron confirmed that organizational commitment negatively influences employee turnover intention [33,34]. On the other hand, using structural equation modeling and a sample size of 150 respondents, Queiri et al. discovered that financial rewards given to employees are important predictors of Generation Y employees’ turnover intention [35]. Similarly, in a study by S. Ali et al. of public-school teachers, they discovered that extrinsic rewards are significantly related to the employees’ intention to quit [36].
The decline in personal and professional advancement is one of the primary factors that make employees decide to leave [37,38]. Lack of personal and professional advancement can be split into two aspects: career advancements and lack of alternatives. Ogony and Majola highlighted that the causes of staff turnover at the KwaZulu-Natal Department of Arts and Culture are a lack of career advancement opportunities, a lack of promotion, and an unacceptable salary [18]. On the contrary, Alhamwan et al. rejected any significant correlation between the lack of career advancement opportunities and employees’ turnover intention while surveying 600 nurses working at public hospitals in Jordan [39].
As for constituent attachments and turnover, previous studies produced conflicting results. Tews and Stafford discovered that only for younger employees who faced more harsh management, constituent attachment increased the risk of turnover [40]. While Ellingson et al. established that constituent attachment reduced turnover among employees designated as emerging adults but had no effect on turnover among non-emerging adults [41].

1.3. Medical Device Industry in the United Arab Emirates

Healthcare technologies are viewed as a cost-cutting strategy in various markets. In the UAE, however, the government is promoting an integrated experience and improving patient outcomes by leveraging smart healthcare. The medical device industry in the UAE holds a special place in the country’s economy and is expecting annual growth because of the increase in demand, healthcare technology, and the advancement of operations. According to Deepak [42], the UAE accounts for around 26% of overall GCC healthcare spending. It ranks in the top 20 countries in the world in terms of healthcare spending per capita, with a figure of $1,200 [42].
According to Al-Talabani et al. [43], the medical device industry in the UAE has been developing over time to cope with the increased healthcare spending. Fitch Solutions forecasted that the medical device industry in the UAE will reach 5.6 billion dirhams by 2025 and is forecasted to grow at a CAGR of 8.4 percent in the period 2021-2026 [44].
Nonetheless, various factors are raising challenges for the medical device industry in the UAE in its bid to excel in the international market. According to Bier [45], the UAE healthcare sector is growing at around 10 percent annually after the government spent $15.5 billion on it in 2019, but there is a drop in the number of employees available to help medical device companies keep up with the growth and huge demand in the UAE healthcare sector. Additionally, along with globalization, a range of markets has enhanced its presence in the medical device industry [46].
Healthcare talent shortages are not a new concept [47]. Employers have fought for years to identify and retain the best personnel for their teams. However, the shortage has become more apparent, and available candidates are pickier about the organizations with whom they choose to work. Although an excellent literature review is present to analyze the employee turnover rate in the UAE, specific research gaps are still present. These research gaps cause issues to analyze the employee turnover rate in the medical device industry of UAE. There was no research available that discussed the employee turnover rate in the medical device industry in the UAE. Also, only limited statistics were present, which was a significant barrier to finding the exact percentage of employee turnover rate in the medical device industry in the UAE.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Methodology

This research was based on a quantitative analysis of the survey completed by employees of medical device companies in the UAE and contains dependent and independent variables. Employee Turnover in the UAE medical device industry was the dependent variable. While independent variables in this research included the factors that lead employees to leave their organizations. The goal, as with any quantitative study, was to determine and investigate if these independent variables have an impact on employee turnover in the medical device industry in the UAE.
To guarantee project quality, the researcher considered time and cost and selected to adopt a questionnaire survey and case study approaches to answer the research questions and reach the research objectives. Since this research used both the survey and case study strategies and both were done through set questionnaires then this research was set to use a mono-strategy quantitative method. This research used the survey approach and thus was deemed cross-sectional, and the same approach was taken for the case study.
The data collection phase of the study was conducted between March 2022 and April 2022 via an online questionnaire using Microsoft Forms. It was easier to reach a big sample by creating an online link to the questionnaire which the Microsoft Forms program provided for free. For the case study, a different weblink was sent to a different set of targeted employees in the medical devices sector in the UAE. The case study results were compared against results obtained from the standard sample to ensure that these results were reliable and valid.
The researcher distributed the online research survey to a total of 577 employees in the medical device industry in the UAE. The researcher received back 230 completed responses. This meant that this research had a 39.86 percent response rate. The questionnaire consisted of two parts and included closed-ended questions. Part one included basic information as well as respondents’ background information which made up the Demographics and Employee Profile sections. Part two focused on the research hypotheses and questions. Its goal was to investigate the impact of these factors on employee turnover in the medical device industry in the UAE.
The data were analyzed with sample profile analysis, descriptive analysis, and hypothesis testing. The hypothesis tests included an independent sample t-test, a one-way ANOVA, and a linear regression analysis to test the hypotheses. Data analysis was conducted using the IBM® Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS®) software version 2021.
This research was indicated as not being harmful to any society, nation, organization, or human being. The results were distributed with anonymity and were completely unbiased. The participants had the option to leave the survey at any time with no consequences and their answers weren’t to be recorded. The same applied to the participants of the study case.

2.2. Hypotheses

This research investigated factors based on numerous hypotheses and thus used the deductive approach. This research identified seven factors – including 15 sub-factors – to investigate their impact on employee turnover in the medical device industry in the UAE. The control variables in this study were demographics. The dependent variable for this study was employee turnover which was presented as Turnover Intention.
Then there were the six independent variables listed below that are made up of sub-factors. Employee Profile was the first independent variable and was made up of two sub-factors: employee investments and non-work influences. Job-related factors were the second independent variable and were made up of three sub-factors: Perceived External Prestige, Location, and Flextime. The third independent variable was performance appraisal and feedback, and it was made up of two sub-factors: Organizational Justice and Job Satisfaction. The fourth independent variable was lack of recognition and was made up of two sub-factors: Organizational Commitment and Extrinsic Rewards. Lack of personal and professional advancement was the fifth independent variable and was made up of two sub-factors: Career Advancement and Lack of Alternatives. The sixth independent variable was the lack of effective communication and was made up of one sub-factor which is Constituent Attachments.
Based on the factors and sub-factors deduced from the literature, the following hypotheses were proposed:
H10: 
There is no statistically significant impact of demographics on employee turnover in medical device organizations in the UAE.
H1.10: 
There is no statistically significant impact of employee age on employee turnover in medical device organizations in the UAE.
H1.20: 
There is no statistically significant impact of employee gender on employee turnover in medical device organizations in the UAE.
H1.30: 
There is no statistically significant impact of employee education level on employee turnover in medical device organizations in the UAE.
H20: 
There is no statistically significant impact of employee profile on employee turnover in medical device organizations in the UAE.
H2.10: 
There is no statistically significant impact of employee investments on employee turnover in medical device organizations in the UAE.
H2.20: 
There is no statistically significant impact of non-work influences on employee turnover in medical device organizations in the UAE.
H30: 
There is no statistically significant impact of job-related factors on employee turnover in medical device organizations in the UAE.
H3.10: 
There is no statistically significant impact of perceived external prestige on employee turnover in medical device organizations in the UAE.
H3.20: 
There is no statistically significant impact of location on employee turnover in medical device organizations in the UAE.
H3.30: 
There is no statistically significant impact of flextime on employee turnover in medical device organizations in the UAE.
H40: 
There is no statistically significant impact of performance appraisal and feedback on employee turnover in medical device organizations in the UAE.
H4.10: 
There is no statistically significant impact of organizational justice on employee turnover in medical device organizations in the UAE.
H4.20: 
There is no statistically significant impact of job satisfaction on employee turnover in medical device organizations in the UAE.
H50: 
There is no statistically significant impact of lack of recognition on employee turnover in medical device organizations in the UAE.
H5.10: 
There is no statistically significant impact of organizational commitment on employee turnover in medical device organizations in the UAE.
H5.20: 
There is no statistically significant impact of extrinsic rewards on employee turnover in medical device organizations in the UAE.
H60: 
There is no statistically significant impact of lack of personal and professional advancement on employee turnover in medical device organizations in the UAE.
H6.10: 
There is no statistically significant impact of career advancement on employee turnover in medical device organizations in the UAE.
H6.20: 
There is no statistically significant impact of lack of alternatives on employee turnover in medical device organizations in the UAE.
H70: 
There is no statistically significant impact of lack of effective communication on employee turnover in medical device organizations in the UAE.
H7.10: 
There is no statistically significant impact of constituent attachments on employee turnover in medical device organizations in the UAE.
Lastly, there was one more hypothesis that was proposed to test if there was no factor that influences employee turnover in the medical device industry in the UAE as mentioned below:
H80: 
There is no statistically significant impact of any factor on employee turnover in medical device organizations in the UAE.
The hypotheses framework of this research can be seen in Figure 1.

3. Results

3.1. Sameple Profile Analysis

A total of 577 sets of questionnaires were sent out through email to respondents that work in the medical device industry in the UAE. The total data respondents collected were 230 sets. According to the results and among 230 respondents, 152 respondents belonged to the 30 to 39 age group. While 46 respondents belonged to the 40 to 49 age group, 27 respondents were in the 20 to 29 age group and five respondents were 50 to 59 age group (see Figure 2).
Concerning the respondents’ gender in Figure 3, 181 respondents were male that is over three-quarters of the study participants. Females represented 21.3 percent of the study participants, with 49 respondents.
When asked about the education level, as seen in Figure 4, the highest number of respondents came from employees holding a bachelor’s degree with 137 respondents (59.6 percent), followed by those holding a postgraduate degree with 85 respondents (37.0 percent). Only five respondents (2.2 percent) held a college diploma, two respondents (0.9 percent) held a high school certificate and only one respondent (0.4 percent) held a secondary school certificate.

3.2. Descriptive Analysis

Descriptive Analysis gave a general description of the study’s sample’s linkages and trends. Table 2 contained descriptive data for all variables of the research. N corresponded to the size of the sample collected which was equivalent to 230 respondents. In the current study, the potential lowest and maximum values should be between one and seven, which correspond to the start and endpoints of the 7-point Likert Scale.
The mean of Location which was the perception of the employee about his/her company having a prime location was at M = 5.94, which was the highest among all other variables. This mean result was closer to six which meant that most respondents “agree” about their company being located in a prime location. When asked about their intention to leave their current job, the respondents were leaning more toward “neutral” than “slightly disagree” as the mean was M = 3.78 which was the lowest overall.
On the other hand, Constituent Attachments had the standard deviation with the least variation which meant that the sample was spread out the least with SD = 0.99 around the mean of M = 5.55 which was closest to “agree”. Oppositely, Turnover Intention had the standard deviation with the highest variation which meant that the sample was spread out the most with SD = 1.60 around the mean of M = 3.78 which was closest to “Neutral”.

3.3. Hypothesis Testing

Hypothesis testing was done by applying different statistical methods based on hypothesis requirements. These tests included the independent sample t-test, one-way ANOVA, and simple linear regression. The results of hypothesis testing are listed in Table 3. These results were later validated through a case study that included 30 participants.
A one-way ANOVA was conducted on the groups’ employee age. The test supported the hypothesis that there was no difference between the groups’ employee age on employee turnover F(3, 226) = 1.03, p = .381 > .05. While an independent samples t-test was used to compare employee turnover intention in male participants and female participants, data showed that there was no significant difference between the groups, t(228) = -1.439, p = .151 > .05. Additionally, the linear regression analysis was statistically not significant between education level and employee turnover F(1, 228) = .521, p = .471 > .05.
A one-way ANOVA test supported the hypothesis that there was no significant relationship between employee investment on employee turnover F(4, 225) = .301, p = .877 > .05. On the other hand, the result of one-way ANOVA demonstrated a significant relationship between non-work influences and employee turnover F(3, 226) = 6.03, p < .001.
The linear regression analysis was statistically significant between perceived external prestige and employee turnover F(1, 228) = 20.96, p < .001; location and employee turnover F(1, 228) = 9.91, p = .002 < .05; and flextime and employee turnover F(1, 228) = 18.48, p < .001. Moreover, a linear regression analysis against employee turnover was statistically significant for organizational justice F(1, 228) = 122.18, p < .001, job satisfaction F(1, 228) = 181.88, p < .001, and organizational commitment F(1, 228) = 117.75, p < .001.
Additionally, the result of linear regression was significant between extrinsic rewards and employee turnover F(1, 228) = 97.14, p < .001; career advancement and employee turnover F(1, 228) = 150.33, p < .001; and lack of alternatives and employee turnover F(1, 228) = 20.20, p < .001. Finally, the linear regression analysis was statistically significant between constituent attachments and employee turnover F(1, 228) = 36.62, p < .001.

4. Discussion

This research consisted of 230 participants in the main study and 30 participants in the case study. The findings from the literature review, main study, and case study were compared to identify and validate the impact variables. To answer the research questions, a literature review was drafted, the main study survey was analyzed, and a case study was conducted. The literature review in chapter two outlined a number of factors that researchers had discussed when studying employee turnover. From the existing literature review, the researcher adapted and selected factors that would apply to this research and conducted the main study survey to analyze the significance of these factors. Based on the results of the analysis, the researcher conducted a case study to validate the results.
The researcher concluded that low-salary earners had the intention to leave their jobs more than employees having a high salary. This could be mainly due to several factors but most noteworthy for this research were the duties and responsibilities outside of the job that requires employees to search for better-earning jobs.
The researcher identified job-related factors to have a major impact on an employee’s decision when it came to quitting a job. The organization’s reputation was an important factor for employees. It gave them a sense of belonging to an organization that they could rely on and trust. The location of this organization was important since most of the employees in the medical device industry in the UAE were expatriates, which meant most had implied that they work in a safe environment with all the rules and regulations in place. Lastly, employees working with flexible hours had shown less intent to leave their jobs. This was mainly due to the fact that robustness leads to a routine which could lead employees to get more ineffective.
This research concluded that injustice in the workplace would lead employees to leave, whether immediately or in one year or two. As soon as employees feel the organization’s justice as soon as they feel a sense of belonging to a family. Job satisfaction was a major sub-factor that impacted employee turnover. Employees need to be satisfied at their jobs, or they will simply leave. Employees that were not satisfied will work inefficiently and affect the team they work with.
This research proved that the lack of recognition will result in an increased turnover intention for employees. This could be due either to the organizational commitment of employees or insufficient extrinsic rewards. In a competitive market like the UAE, and with the expenses that expatriates incur to live in this country, extrinsic rewards play a big role when applying for a new job or deciding whether to leave a certain company.
The researcher confirmed that the lack of personal and professional advancement has a significant impact on employee turnover in the medical device industry in the UAE. Fair promotion rules must be considered by organizations in order to foster personal and professional development. Moreover, employees’ skepticism about the availability of opportunities outside their organization has a significant impact on their decision to leave their jobs. Finally, this research established that constituent attachments and lack of effective communication had a significant impact on employee turnover in the medical device industry in the UAE.

5. Conclusions

This research has paved the way for other researchers or interested institutions to investigate further these factors that impact employee turnover in the medical device industry. The findings from the main study and the case study have a significant impact on both business practice and academic fields. The current study helps medical device companies in the UAE achieve long-term business success.
Finally, the study provides guidance to new and foreign companies interested in entering the UAE medical device market. Moreover, the research contributes to the academic field of business and management by providing updated practical knowledge of the medical device sector in the UAE. Furthermore, a significant implication of the research is that it addressed an area that was widely recognized as a growing market with limitless potential in the UAE, attracting a large number of foreign business suppliers.
This research is limited to the medical device industry in the UAE. Throughout the research period, the researcher encountered a variety of limitations. The most notable limitation is the lack of data on employees in the medical device industry in the UAE. The researcher discovered that the databases available were insufficient, outdated, or inaccurate.
Another limitation of the study is the lack of previous research on the factors impacting employee turnover in the medical device industry in the UAE. The academic literature on this topic is limited and is mostly published privately or on social media, or it has not yet been published. The main study in this research was conducted over a 6-weeks period. With a longer research period, researchers could get more respondents and achieve more reliable results. Another limitation of this research is the cost.
The researcher recommends that future research should compare the key factors in the present research that impact employee turnover in the medical device industry in the UAE with that of other developed countries. In addition, a comparative case study research could be employed to compare employee turnover in the medical device industry against that in the pharmaceutical sector in the UAE as these are two sectors that are highly related and overlapping globally. Furthermore, future research could be about implementing a practical business plan to tackle these factors in a certain organization in the UAE.

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Figure 1. Hypotheses Framework.
Figure 1. Hypotheses Framework.
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Figure 2. Age Group Sample Analysis.
Figure 2. Age Group Sample Analysis.
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Figure 3. Gender Distribution in the Main Study.
Figure 3. Gender Distribution in the Main Study.
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Figure 4. Education Level of Respondents.
Figure 4. Education Level of Respondents.
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Table 1. Hausknecht et al. Retention Factors [21].
Table 1. Hausknecht et al. Retention Factors [21].
Advancement opportunities Non-work influences Job satisfaction
Extrinsic rewards Organizational justice Location
Investments Constituent attachments Organizational commitment
Lack of alternatives Flexible work arrangements Organizational prestige
Table 2. Descriptive Statistics of the Main Study.
Table 2. Descriptive Statistics of the Main Study.
N Sum Mean Std. Deviation Variance
Perceived External Prestige 230 1323.83 5.76 1.03 1.07
Location 230 1365.00 5.94 1.01 1.03
Flextime 230 1038.75 4.52 1.49 2.22
Organizational Justice 230 1182.00 5.14 1.32 1.75
Job Satisfaction 230 1222.00 5.31 1.37 1.87
Organizational Commitment 230 1266.00 5.50 1.18 1.40
Extrinsic Rewards 230 1048.67 4.56 1.47 2.17
Career Advancement 230 1110.80 4.83 1.45 2.11
Lack of Alternatives 230 915.25 3.98 1.32 1.73
Constituent Attachments 230 1277.50 5.55 .99 .98
Turnover Intention 230 868.20 3.78 1.60 2.55
Valid N (listwise) 230
Table 3. Hypothesis Test Results of the Main Study.
Table 3. Hypothesis Test Results of the Main Study.
Hypothesis Variable p-value Significance
H1.1 Age .381 No
H1.2 Gender .151 No
H1.3 Education Level .471 No
H2.1 Employee Investment .877 No
H2.2 Non-Work Influences < .001 Yes
H3.1 Perceived External Prestige < .001 Yes
H3.2 Location .002 Yes
H3.3 Flextime < .001 Yes
H4.1 Organizational Justice < .001 Yes
H4.2 Job Satisfaction < .001 Yes
H5.1 Organizational Commitment < .001 Yes
H5.2 Extrinsic Rewards < .001 Yes
H6.1 Career Advancement < .001 Yes
H6.2 Lack of Alternatives < .001 Yes
H7.1 Constituent Attachments < .001 Yes
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