The simulation game employed in this study spans a 60-year timeframe, with each round representing a decade, starting from 1960 and extending beyond 2020. The game encompasses a wide range of topics, including sustainability, biodiversity, certification, financial crises, war, pandemics, among others. By immersing participants in gameplay, the game offers an interactive and experiential learning opportunity that allows students and practitioners to explore their own perspectives and analyze the intricate factors influencing international forest governance. Notably, a well-designed and effectively executed game session can have a profound and enduring impact on participants, evoking strong emotional responses. Throughout gameplay, individuals may experience a spectrum of emotions, such as surprise, frustration, triumph, anger, and joy, which contribute to a heightened level of engagement and deeper understanding. Moreover, the topics and discussions that emerge during the game continue to resonate with participants even after the session concludes, thereby enhancing the overall learning experience [
32].
4.1. Transformative learning
In the last decade, there has been a growing interest among educational researchers in transformative experiences. Kevin Pugh [
33] has recommended that science classrooms should be reoriented to incorporate such experiences, while transformative learning theory and social justice education have emphasized the significance of creating "disorienting dilemmas" to transform students’ worldviews [
34]. In the context of this discussion, during their gameplay of MineSet, the students were presented with a few critical aspects that were surprising to them. Firstly, they were taken aback by how their collective decisions had a negative impact on the forests, which helped them comprehend that managing tropical forest landscapes is a multifaceted task that involves difficult choices. Secondly, the students realized that unexpected events and feedback could significantly influence the system and outcomes. Lastly, they came to understand that stakeholders may have different interests and goals, which can result in either cooperation or conflicts. These surprising elements of the game underscore the value of games like MineSet, which provide a realistic and immersive experience that can prepare students for real-world scenarios in forestry and environmental contexts.
Transformative learning is a process that involves critically evaluating one's existing assumptions and beliefs to bring about a profound shift in worldview [
35]. This transformative process is facilitated by being exposed to alternative viewpoints and engaging in conscious reflection. In the context of higher education, transdisciplinary approaches have the potential to foster transformative learning by exposing students to diverse knowledge and perspectives. These approaches emphasize reflexivity, encouraging students to unpack their values, norms, and worldviews as they grapple with sustainability issues. However, there is an ongoing discussion on how to effectively design transdisciplinary learning experiences that optimize transformative learning. Scholars such as Mezirow [
36], Fisher and McAdams [
37], and Leal Filho et al. [
38] have contributed to this discourse. In our observations, we have found that strategy games have proven to be particularly effective in promoting transformative learning within transdisciplinary contexts.
Optimal learning occurs when individuals actively engage in learning practices that are directly relevant to their specific situations. These practices are primarily influenced by unconscious processes in the brain, by our mental models, shaped by previous learning experiences and motivational states [
39]. In the realm of higher education, achieving transformative learning often requires the participation of stakeholders [
40,
41]. However, incorporating real stakeholders into the classroom is hindered by practical challenges, including scheduling conflicts, time constraints, and other commitments. While virtual platforms provide an alternative, organizing stakeholder engagement remains a complex endeavor. To overcome these obstacles and emulate the inclusion of stakeholders, the integration of role-play games emerges as an elegant solution.
By assuming different roles, students actively participate in the game and gain first-hand experience of stakeholder perspectives, thereby fostering a deeper understanding of diverse viewpoints. This immersive approach enables them to navigate the complexities of decision-making within forest landscapes. One student emphasized the value of such games, stating, “[games]effectively demonstrate the long-term impacts of our decisions within a condensed time frame.” Throughout the gameplay, students interacted with a range of actors, including big logging companies, concession holders, Indigenous communities, government officials, and non-governmental organizations, other land users and nature protection groups. These interactions provided opportunities to exchange perspectives on deforestation and gain a comprehensive understanding of the complex dynamics at play. Importantly, the game also facilitated timely reassessment and adjustment of strategies, underscoring the intricate web of interactions among stakeholders involved in specific issues.
To evaluate the effectiveness and scope of substituting actual stakeholder involvement with role-play games, further scientific research is essential. Nonetheless, the incorporation of role-play games in educational settings signifies a significant advancement towards fostering transformative teaching practices. By immersing students in dynamic scenarios and encouraging active engagement, these games promote critical thinking, empathy, and a holistic understanding of real-world challenges [
42]. Ultimately, the inclusion of role-play games offers a promising avenue to bridge the gap between theory and practice, equipping students with the skills and perspectives necessary to navigate complex issues and contribute to meaningful change in the world.
Through the game, students were introduced to the drivers of deforestation and gained a new appreciation for the impact that individual decisions can have on the collective outcome. They learned how different actors in the system have different incentives and interests, and how these can lead to trade-offs between environmental, economic, and social objectives. By exploring these drivers and trade-offs through the game, students gained a deeper understanding of the challenges associated with managing forest landscapes.
Trade-offs emerged as a critical concept in the MineSet game. Students learned that managing forest landscapes involves difficult choices and that there are no easy solutions. They gained insights into the interplay between environmental, social, and economic objectives and saw how these can sometimes conflict with each other. By experiencing these trade-offs first-hand, students were better equipped to understand the complexity of forest management and to appreciate the importance of balancing competing interests.
Constructivist teaching is centered on the belief that learners in general actively construct knowledge rather than passively receive it [
43]. It promotes critical thinking skills, nurtures self-motivated and independent learners, and recognizes the dynamic interplay between internal factors and external conditions [
44]. This approach emphasizes five key characteristics: active, constructive, self-directed, social, and situational learning processes [
42]. Knowledge is constructed within various contexts and through social interactions. Learners co-create knowledge in a self-organized manner, benefiting from complex and authentic learning environments that encourage experiential learning, multiple perspectives, social collaboration, and instructional support [
45]. Gaming simulation aligns well with constructivist theories, challenging traditional notions of knowledge and supporting diverse perspectives [
42]. It embraces the idea that there is no singular best approach to learning, echoing the principles of constructivism and systems thinking, which encourage exploration of complexity and reject simplistic solutions in understanding human behavior.
4.2. When teachers become facilitators
The impact of teachers’ actions in the classroom on student learning is widely acknowledged. However, there is a lack of data regarding which teaching practices effectively support learning in inclusive classrooms, particularly data derived from direct observations of teachers [
46]. When integrating gaming into the classroom, the teacher's role shifts to that of a facilitator or game master, extending beyond traditional curriculum instruction. During gameplay, various emotions may arise, demanding immediate attention [
47]. The teacher must possess facilitation skills to adeptly manage these strong emotions stemming from both successful and frustrating gameplay. Emotions experienced by participants can span from joy and happiness to frustration, sadness, or even anger, influenced by their decisions and outcomes within the game. The teacher or facilitator must assess the situation and create opportunities for meaningful discussions, often accomplished through debriefing sessions that are integral to the learning process [
32]. While debriefings usually follow a structured format [
48], in the classroom, they can encompass specific topics or themes. Typically, a debriefing consists of several steps, inter alia: (1) acknowledging explicit emotions and inquiring about participants' feelings, (2) discussing the events that unfolded during the game, and (3) drawing comparisons between the game and real-world situations, and (4) what could be changed, i.e., the “what if” discussion. To ensure fruitful outcomes from the game and ensuing discussions, skilled facilitation becomes imperative. While the game sessions can be enjoyable, the process of confronting one's cognitive limitations and challenging incorrect assumptions may lead to frustration and discomfort [
49]. Effective facilitation thus plays a crucial role in transforming these challenging personal experiences into valuable opportunities for learning and self-reflection [
23]. This approach allows students to co-learn or develop soft competencies which have been identified as key for workplace success. The soft skills development has high importance in our class and includes leadership and management, human relations, and communication.
4.2. Limitations
The original MineSet game is a physical, haptic tabletop game, which has the advantage of facilitating interplayer exchanges and emotional engagement. However, for this particular instance of the game, the students played an online version. While the online version allowed for remote play and accessibility, it lacked the tactile and emotional aspects of the physical game. The students offered valuable feedback on how the MineSet game could be improved for educational purposes. To enhance the overall learning experience, they suggested two key changes. Firstly, the students recommended the development of a fully standardised online version of the game, which would be optimal for remote play. While the beta-run of the game on Mural was generally successful, waiting times increased as the game master had to keep track of everything, and instructions for online play took some time for everyone to understand. A standardised online version would also reduce the need for a game master and allow students to proceed through the game at their own pace. Secondly, the students suggested providing an instruction sheet before the start of the game to provide a clear impression of the game mechanics. This would reduce the time needed for the game master to explain the game, increasing the efficiency of the game, and improving the overall learning experience. The students also highlighted the importance of improving the accessibility and connectivity of the game, which would allow more participants to engage with the game remotely. These suggestions would help to maximise the benefits of the game as an educational tool, making it easier for teachers to integrate it into their curriculum and helping students to better understand the complex dynamics of deforestation.
4.4. Using games beyond the classroom
The students provided insights on the usefulness of games like MineSet beyond teaching. As future managers and decision-makers in the fields of forestry and other environmental contexts, they recognized the importance of such games in preparing them for real-world scenarios. While games like MineSet provide an alternative to lecture-based learning, the students believed that bringing real actors such as politicians, business people, or locals to the table could further support real action and policy. Moreover, through the possible role swaps the game promotes empathy, which could help overcome opposition in politics or culture, leading to more informed decision-making.
MineSet can be a useful tool for exploring the transitions and future of tropical forest landscapes due to its ability to simulate the direct and indirect drivers of forest change, as well as mimic forest degradation and recovery. What makes the game particularly valuable is that it brings agency to the table. Real people, such as students or anyone who commits their time and energy to attend a game play workshop, can enter different roles, such as big corporations with the power to make landscape-level and long-term impacts, governments, the World Bank, communities, NGOs, and more. By allowing players to step into these roles and interact with each other, the game creates a realistic and immersive experience, as in “this feels real” (see [
50]), that can help players understand the complex dynamics of tropical forest landscapes.
Ultimately, the MineSet game can help players develop a better understanding of the challenges and opportunities involved in sustainable forest management. By exploring different scenarios and outcomes, players can gain insights into how different decisions and actions can affect the landscape over time in a safe space [
28,
51]. This can be particularly useful for policymakers, as they can use the game to test different policy options and evaluate their potential impact before implementing them in real life [
23].
Education possesses the potential to effectively engage and raise awareness among diverse individuals, ranging from ordinary citizens, students to educators and high-level decision-makers. However, it is crucial to recognize that information alone is insufficient to instigate significant change [
52,
53]. While reinforced learning entails gradual shifts in behavior or improvements in performance, insight learning manifests as sudden and dramatic behavioral changes [
54]. Surprises, arising from disparities between incoming information and our established expectations formed by mental models, prompt specific behavioral responses aimed at revising these mental models to enhance our ability to anticipate future states of the world [
55]. As players engage in gameplay, they undergo emotional responses, and the impact of their decisions shapes their values and priorities. It is this transformative power of games that makes them effective tools, such as MineSet, not only within classrooms but also in realms like policy making [
23]. While we have presented an example related to forests, the application of such games can extend to any complex subject within the domains of environmental management and governance.