1. Introduction

1.2. Role of marine algae-derived phenolic compounds in skin benefits

Marine algae derived phenolic compounds exhibit diverse biological activities that are often correlated with their chemical properties. However, certain phenolic extracts have demonstrated interesting properties but have not been fully characterized. Notably, green seaweed-derived bromophenols and flavonoids have been shown to possess antioxidant activities. Studies conducted by Farasat et al. [28] and Cho et al. [29] have highlighted the high radical scavenging activities of various green (Chlorophyta) species, including Ulva clathrata, U. compressa, U. intestinalis, U. linza, U. flexuosa, U. australis, Capsosiphon fulvescens, and Chaetomorpha moniligera. Furthermore, the phenolic fraction of U. clathrata and U. flexuosa has demonstrated antibacterial and cytotoxic effects on breast ductal carcinoma cell lines [30,31]. The functions of phenol compounds in red marine algae are not extensively studied; however, they likely exhibit multifunctional actions in cell life, such as antioxidant and chelation properties, as well as acting as co-factors or hormones [32]. It should be noted that some research studies have focused on extracts enriched in polyphenolics rather than isolated phenolic compounds [33]. Marine macroalgae harbour a wide range of phenolic compounds, with more than 8000 different structures identified. These compounds play crucial roles in the growth, survival, and defence mechanisms of organisms. These compounds can be synthesized through various metabolic pathways, including the Pentose Phosphate Pathway (PPP), Phenylpropanoid pathway, and shikimate pathway. Researchers such as Giada [34] and Vermerris and Nicholson [35] have proposed different classification systems for phenolic compounds, which encompass a wide range of structures, from simple to highly polymerized forms. Simple phenolic compounds are characterized by the presence of hydroxyl groups at different positions, namely ortho, meta, and para (1,2-, 2,3-, and 1,4-, respectively). In some cases, simple phenolics may exhibit three functional groups, such as meta-tri or vic-tri substitution. Examples of simple phenolic compounds exclusively found in macroalgae include catechol, HQ, and phloroglucinol [36]. Catechol, in particular, has been detected in twenty-seven Japanese green and red seaweeds [37]. Bromophenols, which are bromine-substituted simple phenols, are commonly found in association with catechol. Another classification within the C6-CN phenolic group involves phenolic acids and aldehydes, characterized by the substitution of the phenol with a carboxylic group [35]. Examples of these include phenolic acid, hydroxybenzoic acids (C6-C1); acetophenones, phenylacetic acids, coumarins (C6-C2); coumarins, hydroxycinnamic acids, phenylpropanoids (C6-C3); naphthoquinones (C6-C4); xanthones (C6-C1-C6); stilbenoids, anthraquinones (C6-C2-C6); flavonoids, isoflavonoids (C6-C3-C6); lignans, neolignans ([C6-C3]2); lignins ([C6-C3]n); and condensed tannins ([C6-C3-C6]n). Gallic acid, a simple phenolic acid, is commonly used as a standard for estimating the total phenol content and can be found in high concentrations in the brown alga Halopteris scoparia. Another example is 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, which has been reported in the brown alga Undaria pinnatifida [38]. The C6-C2 category is not as prevalent in nature, but Tichocarpus crinitus, a red alga, has been studied for containing phenolic compounds such as coumarins, isocoumarins, chromones, monolignols, hydroxycinnamic acids, and cinnamic aldehydes within the C6-C3 classification [35,39]. Coumarins have also been found in the green alga Dasycladus vermicularis [40]. Furthermore, other phenolic compound classes include xanthones (C6-C1-C6), stilbenoids, anthraquinones, and anthrones (C6-C2-C6), flavonoids (C6-C3-C6), diarylheptanoids (C6-C7-C6), and (C6-C3-C6) compounds that can be classified based on the arrangement of the C3 group connecting two benzene rings. Flavonoids are further classified into various subclasses such as flavonols, flavones, isoflavones, anthocyanins, and flavanones. Cho et al. [29] found a higher content of flavonoids in red algae compared to green and brown algae. Additionally, Generalić Mekinić et al. [38] reported the presence of different flavonoids, such as catechin, epicatechin, gallate, and epigallocatechin, in brown algae species including Eisenia bicyclis, Sargassum fusiforme, and Saccharina japonica.

Polyphenolic compounds found in marine algae can be classified into different types, including phlorotannins and phloroglucinol. Phlorotannins are polymers of phloroglucinol, with the addition of halogen or hydroxyl groups, while phloroglucinol itself contains an aromatic ring structure with three hydroxyl groups [41,42]. These polyphenols can further be subclassified into six groups: eckols, fucophlorethols, fucols, phlorethols, carmalols, and fuhalols.

Another type of phenolic compound found in marine algae is lignans. Lignans are dimeric or oligomeric compounds formed by the union of monolignols, such as coniferyl alcohol and sinapyl alcohol. Freile-Pelegrín and Robledo [43] reported the presence of lignans in the calcified red marine algae Calliarthron cheilosporioides (Rhodophyta). It is worth noting that lignin, a polymeric phenol, is the most abundant organic polymer in nature. Although not extensively studied in marine algae, lignin is structurally composed of monolignols and lignan units randomly linked, forming a polymeric network.

Tannins, another class of polyphenols, can also be found in marine algae. They can be divided into three different chemical structures: hydrolysable tannins, flavonoid-based tannins, and phlorotannins. Hydrolysable tannins are derived from simple phenolic acids and carbohydrates, where the hydroxyl groups are partially or completely esterified with phenolic groups. Flavonoid-based tannins are synthesized through flavins and catechins. Phlorotannins, on the other hand, are exclusive to brown algae and are oligomers of phloroglucinol [44].

Phlorotannins have been extensively studied for their various biological activities. Studies conducted by Kong et al. [45], Kim et al. [46], Ahn et al. [47], Lee et al. [48], and Li et al. [49] have demonstrated the anti-proliferative, anti-inflammatory, and antiadipogenic activities of phlorotannins derived from the brown macroalga Ecklonia cava, such as dioxinodehydroeckol, dieckol, and phlorofucofuroeckol. Phlorotannins are considered one of the most extensively studied phenolic compounds in algae [50]. They exhibit powerful antioxidant properties, with antioxidant power 2 to 10 times higher than ascorbic acid or tocopherol, which highlights their potential as anti-inflammatory agents [51,52,53]. Phlorotannins, such as dioxinodehydroeckol from E. cava, have been suggested to act as protectors against ultraviolet B (UVB) radiation-induced apoptosis in HaCat cells [54]. Additionally, phlorotannins including dieckol, dioxinodehydroeckol, eckol, eckstolonol, phlorofucofuroeckol A, and 7-phloroeckol isolated from various marine algae are being investigated in the cosmetic industry for their potential as skin whitening and anti-wrinkle agents. They have shown promise as tyrosinase inhibitors and hyaluronidase inhibitors [55,56,57,58,59,60,61]. Bak et al. [62] have also demonstrated the hair growth-promoting activity of 7-phloroeckol derived from E. cava. Furthermore, phlorotannins from Ecklonia cava subsp. kurome have shown effective antibacterial effects against food-borne pathogenic bacteria, including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) strains, Campylobacter sp., and Streptococcus pyogenes [63,64,65].

Bromophenols are phenolic compounds that have been isolated and characterized from red seaweeds. Pérez et al. [66], Duan et al. [67], and Choi et al. [68] have studied the antioxidant activity of phenolic compounds derived from Vertebrata constricta, with the activity dependent on the brominated units and the degree of bromination. Symphyocladia latiuscula-derived bromophenols have also shown antioxidant activity [69]. Colon et al. [69] reported the cytotoxic effect on KB cells and antimicrobial activity of Avrainvillea nigricans-derived 5'-hydroxyisoavrainvilleol, which is an example of a bromophenol. Rawsonol, another bromophenol isolated from the species Avrainvillea rawsoni, has been found to inhibit HMG-CoA reductase activity, an enzyme involved in cholesterol production [70]. Additionally, brominated monoterpenoid quinol, isolated from Cymopolia barbata, has demonstrated antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa [71].

Flavonoids, another class of phenolic compounds, have been investigated for their various applications in cosmetics. Tanna et al. [72] have identified antioxidant activity in flavonoids such as kaempferol and quercetin derived from Caluerpa spp. Acanthophora spicifera-derived flavonoids have been found to contain a mixture of chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, vitexin-rhamnose, quercetin, and catechol, exhibiting antioxidant activity [73,74]. These findings highlight the potential of flavonoids from marine algae as valuable ingredients in cosmetic formulations.

Phenolic terpenoids are a class of compounds found in marine algae that have attracted scientific interest due to their potential antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. Makkar and Chakraborty [75] investigated a chromene-based phenolic compound derived from Gracilaria opuntia (Rhodophyta), which has demonstrated antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties in in vitro assays. Additionally, diterpenes and sesquiterpenes have been commonly found in red macroalgae, as well as in the families Sargassaceae and Rhodomelaceae, as reported by Freile-Pelegrín and Robledo [43].

Mycosporine-Like Amino Acids Mycosporine-like amino acids (MAAs) are an exclusive class of phenolic compounds found in various marine algal species. These species include Asparagopsis armata, Chondrus crispus, Mastocarpus stellatus, Palmaria palmata, Gelidium sp., Pyropia sp. (formerly known as Porphyra sp.), Gracilaria cornea, Solieria chordalis, Grateloupia lanceola, and Curdiea racovitzae (Rhodophyta). MAAs are typically found free in the intracellular space and surrounding cell organelles, providing protection against ultraviolet (UV) rays. They are characterized by a cyclohexenone or cycloheximide chromophore conjugated to an imino alcohol or an amino acid residue [76,77]. Numerous MAAs, including palythine, shinorine, asterina-330, Porphyra-334, palythinol, and usujirene, have been studied extensively. These compounds have shown significant antioxidant properties, photoprotection capabilities, and anti-proliferative activity against cancer cell lines such as HeLa (human cervical adenocarcinoma cell line) and HaCat (human immortalized keratinocyte) [78,79]. Recent studies have also revealed their anti-inflammatory effects and potential as natural photoprotective agents, offering an alternative to synthetic UV-R filters commonly used in sunscreens. Therefore, MAAs represent a specific area of focus and application that holds promise for human use.

Table 1. Applications of marine macroalgae-derived phenolic compounds in skin benefits.

Table 1. Applications of marine macroalgae-derived phenolic compounds in skin benefits.

Nº	Name of Marine algae	Types of marine algae	Skin cosmetic properties/benefits	Marine algae derived compounds	References
1	Sargassum horneri (P)	Brown algae	Antiaging	Sargachromanol E	[80]
2	Pyropia vietnamensis (as Phycocalidia vietnamensis) (R)	Red algae	UV protection	Mycosporine-like amino acids (MAAs)	[81]
3	Ecklonia cava (P)	Brown algae	Skin whitening action	Phlorotannins	[82]
4	Macroalgal species	-	Antioxidant,	-	[83,84]
5	Macroalgal species	-	Anti-wrinkle, Antiaging	Phlorotannins	[85,86]
6	Sargassum fusiforme (as Hizikia fusiformis) (P)	Brown algae	Tyrosinase inhibition, Skin whitening	Phlorotannins	[87]
7	Corallina pilulifera (R)	Red algae	Antiaging, Antiphotoaging, Antioxidant, Skin whitening Tyrosinase inhibition,	Phlorotannins, Eckol, Fucols, Fucophorethols, Fuhalols, Phlorethols	[88,89,90,91]
8	Macroalgal species	-	Inhibit melanin synthesis, Protection against UVB photodamage	Phlorotannins	[92]
9	Ecklonia cava (P)	Brown algae	Melanin synthesis, UV protection	Phlorotannins	[93,94]
10	Brown algae species (P)	Brown algae	Anti-aging, Antioxidant	Phlorotannins such as Phloroeckol, Tetrameric phloroglucinol	[95]
11	Corallina pilulifera (R)	Red algae	Inhibition of Metalloproteinase, UV protection, improve skin tightening by preventing collagen degradation, Antiwrinkle,	Phlorotannins	[96]
12	E. cava (P)	Brown algae	UVB protection	Phlorotannins	[97]
13	Saccharina japonica (as Laminaria japonica), Ecklonia cava (P)	Brown algae	UV protection, Antibacterial, Anti-acne	Phlorotannins	[98,99,100]
14	Ulva compressa (as Enteromorpha compressa) (Fig. 1a) (C)	Green algae	Antioxidant effect, Anti-aging	Flavonoids, Tannins, phlorotannins	[101]
15	Fucus vesiculosus (Fig. 1b) (P)	Brown algae	Tyrosinase inhibition, Inhibition of melanin for photoprotection	Flavonoids, Phenols, HQ, Saponin	[102]
16	Ecklonia cava (P)	Brown algae	Skin whitening	Phlorotannins; Eckol, Dieckol, Dioxinodehydroeckol, 7- phloroeckol, Phloroglucinol	[103,104,105]
17	Eisenia bicyclis (P)	Brown algae	Anti-wrinkle and Inhibition of hyaluronidase	Phlorotannins (Phlorofucofuroeckol- A, Dieckol, Eckol, Phloroglucinol, 8,8’ bieckol	[106]
18	Ecklonia cava subsp. kurome (as Ecklonia kurome) (P)	Brown algae	Anti-wrinkle and Inhibition of hyaluronidase	Phlorofucofuroeckol A, 8-8 bieckol, Dieckol, Eckol, Phloroglucinol	[107]
19	Ecklonia cava subsp. stolonifera (as Ecklonia stolonifera) (P)	Brown algae	Tyrosinase inhibition, Skin whitening Inhibition of Metalloproteinase, Anti-wrinkle	Phlorotannins: Eckol, Phlorofucofuroeckol A, Dieckol, Eckstolonol	[108]
20	Ecklonia cava (P)	Brown algae	UVB protector	Phlorotannins	[109]
21	Ishige foliacea (P)	Brown algae	Tyrosinase inhibition, Skin whitening	Octaphlorethol A	[110]
22	Ishige okamurae (P)	Brown algae	Antioxidant, UV protection	Diphlorethohydroxycarmalol	[111]
23	Sargassum horneri (P)	Brown algae	Antiaging, Inhibition of metalloproteinase	Sargachromanol E	[111]
24	Gracilaria gracilis (Fig. 1c) (R)	Red algae	Antioxidant, Radical oxygen species scavenger	Phenol	[112]
25	Sargassum polycystum (P)	Brown algae	Inhibition of melanin (skin whitening agent)	Flavonoids, Tannins, Terpenoids, Phenols, Saponins	[112,113]
26	Laurencia sp. (Fig. 1d) (R)	Red algae	Antioxidant, Antimicrobial	Bromophenols	[114]
27	Ecklonia cava (P)	Brown algae	Inhibit melanin synthesis, Antioxidant	Phlorotannin	[115,116]
28	Ecklonia cava subsp. stolonifera (as Ecklonia stolonifera) (P)	Brown algae	Antiaging (Inhibit melanin synthesis)	Phlorofucofuroeckol A and B	[117]
29	Sargassum fusiforme (as Hizikia fusiformis) (P)	Brown algae	Antiaging (Inhibit melanin synthesis)	Fucosterol	[118]
30	Ecklonia cava (P)	Brown algae	Skin whitening	Eckol, dieckol	[118]
31	Ishige foliacea (P)	Brown algae	Downregulation of tyrosinase synthesis and melanin synthesis	Phlorotannin	[119,120]
32	Ishige okamurae (P)	Brown algae	Downregulation of iNOS and cox-2 expression, and NF-κB activation	Diphlorethol, Hydroxycarmalol	[121]
33	Laminaria ochroleuca (Fig. 1e) (P)	Brown algae	Antioxidant	Polyphenol	[122]
34	Macrocystis pyrifera (P)	Brown algae	Antioxidant, Radical oxygen species scavenger	Phlorotannin	[123]
35	Saccharina latissima (Fig. 1f) (P)	Brown algae	Antioxidant	Phenol	[124]
36	Sargassum serratifolium (P)	Brown algae	Regulation of melanin synthesis	Sargachromenol	[125]
37	Schizymenia dubyi (Fig. 1g) (R)	Red algae	Inhibit melanin synthesis, Inhibition of tyrosinase	Phenol	[125]
38	Sargassum thunbergii (R)	Brown algae	Antioxidant	Thunbergol	[126]
39	Pyropia columbina (R)	Red algae	Antioxidant	Phenol	[127]
40	Rhodomela confervoides (R)	Red algae	Antioxidant	Bromophenol	[128]
41	Ulva prolifera (C)	Green algae	Antioxidant	Phenol, flavonoid	[129]
42	Ulva rigida (Fig. 1h) (C)	Green algae	Antioxidant	Phenol	[130]
43	Ecklonia cava (P)	Brown algae	UVB protection	Dioxinodehydroeckol	[131]
44	Eisenia bicyclis, Ecklonia cava subsp. stolonifera (as E. stolonifera) (P)	Brown algae	Inhibition of Tyrosinase	Ecokol	[132,133,134]
45	Ecklonia cava subsp. stolonifera (as E. stolonifera) (P)	Brown algae	UVB protection	Fucofuroeckol-A	[135]
46	Cystoseira compressa (Fig. 1i) (P)	Brown algae	Antioxidant	Fuhalol	[136]
47	Fucus vesiculosus (Fig. 1j) (P)	Brown algae	Antioxidant	Fucophloroethol	[137]
48	Ecklonia cava (P)	Brown algae	Antioxidant	Eckstolonol	[138]
49	Ishige foliacea (P)	Brown algae	Antioxidant	Octaphlorethol-A	[139]
50	Chaetomorpha antennina (C), Padina gymnospora (P)	Green algae Brown algae	Photoprotection	Chlorophyll, Carotenoid, Xanthophylls, Antioxidant	[140]
51	Ulva lactuca (Fig. 1k), Caulerpa racemosa (C) (Fig. 1L) (C), Bryopsis plumosa (Fig. 1m) (C), Gelidiella acerosa (R), Hypnea valentiae (R)	Green algae Green algae Green algae Red algae Red algae	Photoprotection	Chlorophyll Carotenoid	[141]
52	Sargassum ilicifolium (P)	Brown algae	Photoprotection Antioxidant	Fucoxanthin	[142]
53	Sargassum polycistum (P)	Brown algae	Antioxidant	Fucoxanthin β carotene α carotene	[143]
54	Sacharina latissima (Fig. 1f) (P) (formerly Laminaria Saccharina)	Brown algae	Photo-inhibition	Chlorophyll	[144]
55	Chondrus crispus (Fig. 1o) (R)	Red algae	Photoprotection	Carotenoid	[145]
56	Kappaphycus alvarezii (R), Padina australis (P)	Red algae Brown algae	Photoprotection	Chlorophyll a β carotene Fucoxanthin Zeaxanthin	[146]
57	Gracilaria gracilis (Fig. 1c) (R), Porpyridium sp. (R)	Red algae	Antioxidant, Skin whitening activity by Antimelanogenic activity	Phycobiliprotein pigment such as R-phycoerythrin, Phycocyanin, Allophycocyanins	[147]
58	Cladophors glomerata (C)	Green algae	Antibacterial, Antioxidant, Colorants, Deodorizer	Chlorophyll a, Chlorophyll b, Chlorophyll c, Chlorophyll d	[148]
59	Ulva lactuca (Fig. 1k) (C)	Green algae	Anti-inflammatory, Antiaging, Tyrosinase inhibition, Antioxidants, Photoprotective	Carotenoids such as astaxanthin, beta-carotene, fucoxanthin, lutein	[149]
60	Undaria pinnatifida (Fig. 1o) (P)	Brown algae	Photoprotective	Fucoxanthin	[150]
61	Paraglossum lancifolium (R)	Red algae	Antioxidant, Anti-inflammatory, Antiphotoaging, Photoprotection, Anti-photoaging	Lipid soluble pigments such as Xanthophyll and Carotenoids Beta-carotene, Lutein	[151]
62	Sargassum siliquastrum (P)	Brown algae	Skin protector, Antiphotoaging, Antiwrinkle	Fucoxanthin	[152]
63	Gelidium crinale (R)	Red algae	Antioxidant	Carotenoids	[153]
64	Sargassum siliquastrum (P)	Brown algae	Anti-melanogenic (skin whitening effect), Antioxidant, Anti-inflammatory	Fucoxanthin	[154]
65	Ascophyllum nodosum (Fig. 1p) (P)	Brown algae	Antiaging, Antiwrinkle	Fucoxanthin	[155]
66	Fucus vesiculosus (Fig. 1b) (P)	Brown algae	Antioxidant	Fucoxanthin	[156]
67	Phaeophycae	-	Antiphotoaging	Fucoxanthin	[157]
68	Ulva lactuca (Fig. 1k) (C)	Green algae	Photoprotection, Antiphotoaging, Anti-inflammatory	Zeaxanthin, Neoxanthin, Antheraxanthin, Siphonein, Siphoxanthin	[158]
69	Porphyra sp. (R)	Brown algae	Anti-inflammatory, Photoprotection, Antioxidant, Antiaging	Zeaxanthin, Alpha and Beta Carotene	[159]

(P: Phaeophyceae; C: Chlorophyta; R: Rhodophyta).

2. Phenolic Compound Extraction from Marine Algae

Figure 1. Marine Algae: a – Ulva compressa (C); b – Fucus vesiculosus (P); c – Gracilaria gracilis (R); d – Laurencia sp. (R); e – Laminaria ochroleuca (P); f – Saccharina latissima (P); g – Schizymenia dubyi (R); h – Ulva rigida (C); i – Cystoseira compressa (P); j – Padina gymnospora (P); k – Ulva lactuca (C); L – Caulerpa racemosa (C); m – Bryopsis plumosa (C); n – Chondrus cispus (R); o – Undaria pinnatifida (P); p – Asophylum nodosum (P). C – Chlorophyta; P – Phaeophyceae; R – Rhodophyta. Scale = 1 cm.

Figure 1. Marine Algae: a – Ulva compressa (C); b – Fucus vesiculosus (P); c – Gracilaria gracilis (R); d – Laurencia sp. (R); e – Laminaria ochroleuca (P); f – Saccharina latissima (P); g – Schizymenia dubyi (R); h – Ulva rigida (C); i – Cystoseira compressa (P); j – Padina gymnospora (P); k – Ulva lactuca (C); L – Caulerpa racemosa (C); m – Bryopsis plumosa (C); n – Chondrus cispus (R); o – Undaria pinnatifida (P); p – Asophylum nodosum (P). C – Chlorophyta; P – Phaeophyceae; R – Rhodophyta. Scale = 1 cm.

3. Recent Advances, Developments, and Future Scope in Extraction of Phenolic Compounds from Marine Algae

4. Unlocking the Potential: Recent Progress in Seaweed Pigment Extraction

5. Recent Advances, Developments, and Future Scope in Extraction of Pigment-Related Compounds from Marine Algae

6. Future research should focus on

7. Discussion

8. Conclusion

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