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Emotional Intelligence as Indicator for Effective Academic Achievement within the School Setting: A Comprehensive Conceptual Analysis
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14 December 2023
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15 December 2023
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Abstract
The concept of Emotional Intelligence (EI) has gained prominence due to its substantial impact on a range of life outcomes, including academic performance. The present study aims to examine the relationship between Emotional Intelligence and academic accomplishment in the context of a school environment. Analyzing students' emotional skills and competencies makes it possible to uncover the potential of emotional intelligence (EI) in predicting their academic achievement. Additionally, the study emphasizes the importance of integrating emotional intelligence (EI) training within the educational curriculum. Developing students' emotional awareness, empathy, self-regulation, and social skills can yield notable academic benefits, cultivating an environment more favorable to learning. This systematic review examines the relationship between emotional intelligence and its impact on children and teachers by synthesizing several relevant research studies. This study encompasses a comprehensive review conducted from 2016 to 2023. A total of 64 publications were examined in this study, specifically chosen based on their relevance to the review's parameters. These articles were sourced from reputable academic databases, including Scopus, PsycINFO, PubMed, and WoS. The study revealed a correlation between the five dimensions of personality and emotional intelligence, creativity, resilience, the educational framework, and specific experimental programs about its education. The results mentioned above are of great significance, as they demonstrate that emotional intelligence (EI) is not solely a non-essential skill but a vital factor in education that can provide significant perspectives for students, educators, and politicians.
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Subject: Social Sciences - Psychology
1. Introduction
The term of Emotional Intelligence (EI) holds considerable importance in shaping the overall functionality and effectiveness of a school setting. Emotional intelligence (EI) refers to an individual’s capacity to effectively notice, comprehend, regulate, and harness emotions in both one and others in a constructive and beneficial manner. In educational environments, it serves to enhance the personal growth of both students and teachers, fostering a conducive and efficacious learning environment (Chandel & Chopra, 2017; Hansenne & Legrand, 2012; Luque et al., 2022; Thapar et al., 2019).
The recognition of this particular facet of psychological well-being is progressively growing as a pivotal determinant for comprehensive scholastic accomplishment and interpersonal dynamics within educational institutions (Moreno, 2018). By placing emphasis on the development of emotional intelligence, educational institutions have the potential to foster enhanced communication, heightened problem-solving abilities, augmented capacity to cope with stress, as well as more empathic and productive interactions between the student body and faculty (Novesar, 2020).
The role of emotional intelligence (EI) is crucial in fostering a loving, supporting, and productive educational atmosphere, including teachers’ capacity to comprehend and address their students’ emotional requirements, as well as children’s aptitude to navigate their own emotional terrain and demonstrate empathy towards their peers (Rozo-Rico & Sandoval, 2020; Sahar & Tariq, 2011).
This paper aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of the correlations between Emotional Intelligence and individuals in the context of children, adolescents, and instructors in a typical school environment (Wang, 2022). It will examine the impact of these links on educational experiences, interpersonal connections, and the overall culture of the school. The incorporation of emotional intelligence into education is becoming increasingly evident, with possible implications for the transformation of educational institutions into more empathetic, adaptable, and prosperous entities.
This study examines the effect of emotional intelligence on many aspects of children’s performance. However, it is seen valuable to commence by providing a concise explanation of the subject matter. Emotional intelligence is thus characterized as the capacity of humans to perceive, analyze, and comprehend their own emotions as well as the emotions of others. It additionally pertains to their capacity to engage in daily activities guided by these emotional states, and more broadly, to confront challenging circumstances by employing suitable emotional responses. This review addresses the impact of emotional intelligence on different dimensions of children and adolescents’ daily lives, including their academic responsibilities, the school environment’s atmosphere, and the personality traits exhibited by young individuals (e.g., Big Five personality traits, shyness, internalized behavior) (Elia et al., 2022; Garg et al., 2016; Jung et al., 2023; Nasti et al., 2023). However, the examination of this component, namely origin and social and demographic characteristics, is also a subject of study in various countries and cultures, underscoring its significance. Furthermore, it has been observed that emotional intelligence experiences substantial growth within the school setting, facilitated by the endeavors of educators (Geraci et al., 2023). Additionally, the introduction of various educational programs in recent years has further demonstrated their efficacy in enhancing emotional intelligence, as evidenced by numerous conducted studies (Ulutas & Omeroglu, 2007; Yuksel & Geban, 2014; Zirak & Ahmadian, 2015). Regarding teachers, it is crucial to recognize that their emotional intelligence directly influences that of young individuals and ultimately molds it. This is because students, in response to the emotional and cognitive interactions they encounter with their teachers, also cultivate their own emotional intelligence.
2. Literature Review
The role of Emotional Intelligence (EI) is of utmost importance in educational settings. Emotional intelligence (EI) encompasses the capacity to recognize, regulate, and assess emotions within oneself and others and employ this knowledge to inform cognitive processes and actions effectively. The importance of general well-being and achievement, particularly in educational environments, is increasingly acknowledged (Gyanesh, 2016). The following are several associations between emotional intelligence and individuals inside the school environment, specifically children, adolescents, and teachers.
The correlation between emotional intelligence and enhanced academic achievement, as well as increased interpersonal connections, has been established in the context of children. The incorporation of emotional intelligence education aids in developing children’s comprehension and regulation of their emotions, including prevalent feelings such as irritation, anger, or disappointment, within the context of an educational setting. Additionally, it facilitates the development of empathy for others, thereby fostering constructive social relationships. It is well acknowledged that children can cultivate emotional intelligence during their early developmental stages, enhancing their resilience and ability to cope with various challenges (Jenaabadi, 2014; Lim, 2023).
Adolescents frequently encounter a multifaceted array of emotions and social circumstances. Acquiring emotional intelligence can be particularly advantageous for adolescents, as it facilitates their ability to navigate and manage the various problems they encounter effectively (Plexousakis et al., 2020). Adolescents exhibiting elevated emotional intelligence (EI) frequently have enhanced proficiency in effectively maneuvering social contexts, comprehending, and regulating their emotions, and coping with academic challenges (Mara & Mara, 2010). This could reduce behavioral issues, improve interpersonal connections, and enhance academic performance.
Emotional intelligence holds similar, if not greater, significance for educators. Educators possessing elevated emotional intelligence (EI) are more adept at comprehending and addressing the emotional requirements of their students, hence fostering a more favorable milieu for learning. Educators demonstrate enhanced proficiency in classroom management techniques and the establishment of nurturing student connections (Wang, 2022). Moreover, educators who possess a high level of emotional intelligence are more adept at effectively regulating their emotions, mitigating the likelihood of experiencing burnout and enhancing their overall job contentment.
Emotional intelligence has the potential to foster a conducive and constructive culture within the broader educational setting, characterized by enhanced positivity, support, and productivity. Educational institutions that place a higher emphasis on emotional intelligence (EI) have been seen to encounter a reduction in behavioral issues, enhanced teacher-student rapport, and elevated academic achievement (Chis & Rusu, 2016). The implementation of inclusive strategies, such as integrating social-emotional learning (SEL) curricula, has the potential to cultivate emotional intelligence throughout the educational setting, yielding advantages for students, educators, and the broader school community.
In summary, cultivating emotional intelligence within the educational setting, encompassing students and teachers at all institutional levels, can yield many advantages (Dash, 2021). As mentioned above, the phenomenon can result in improved scholastic achievements, enhanced interpersonal connections, and the establishment of a nurturing and stimulating educational milieu.
Extensive research has been conducted on the topic of emotional intelligence in educational settings, with a particular focus on programs designed to enhance its development. For instance, a recent study conducted by Pauletto et al. (2022) investigated the impact of school-based programs on the enhancement of emotional intelligence skills in pre-adolescents. The findings of this study revealed a positive association between participation in such programs and the improvement of emotional intelligence abilities in this age group. Another study also highlights the significance of emotional intelligence in everyday life, specifically in relation to the literature consumed by young children. Another study conducted by Jiamin Xu (2023) examines the phenomenon of emotional intelligence development in young children, with a specific focus on the influence of both pre-existing literature and self-generated narratives. The study conducted by Navas-Martínez et al. (2023) reaffirms the significance of the environmental factors that shape a child’s upbringing and their potential impact on their emotional intelligence. In a more specific context, the researcher investigates and discloses that children who are raised in households with parents who engage in abusive behaviors exhibit not just challenges related to attachment and diminished resilience but also have a notable decrease in emotional intelligence (Afridi, 2019). The scope of research is extensive and cannot be fully encompassed within the confines of this systematic review. Nevertheless, it is evident from the aforementioned analysis that experts consistently emphasize the significance of fostering emotional intelligence during early stages of life. This aspect warrants due consideration.
Furthermore, the significance of Emotional Intelligence (EI) and leadership skills concerning academic achievement is progressively acknowledged (Antonopoulou et al., 2021a, 2021b; Gkintoni et al., 2022). These qualities characterize individuals who possess exceptional problem-solving ability, effective stress management strategies, highly developed interpersonal skills, and a solid capacity to persevere in the face of scholastic difficulties.
The complex interplay between emotional intelligence (EI), leadership, and academic performance becomes apparent upon carefully examining the data. The findings indicate that strong leadership skills, which are further bolstered by high emotional intelligence (EI), favorably impact individual academic achievements, group productivity, and the overall dynamics within a classroom setting. Leaders that possess a high level of emotional intelligence (EI) have been seen to cultivate a learning atmosphere that is both productive and empathic, hence resulting in improved academic performance (Antonopoulou, 2020).
Research highlights the necessity of including emotional intelligence (EI) and leadership training in educational curricula. By prioritizing cultivating students’ emotional awareness, empathy, self-regulation, and leadership skills, it is possible to create a conducive environment for enhanced academic achievement. Additionally, this emphasizes the significance of providing educators with the necessary training to identify and foster emotional intelligence (EI) and leadership attributes, enabling them to adapt their instructional approaches accordingly.
In summary, it may be argued that emotional intelligence (EI) and leadership skills are not only supplementary abilities but rather fundamental components that contribute significantly to academic success. Implementing these strategies can greatly enhance students’ educational experiences and outcomes. Additional investigation is warranted to examine the implementation of comprehensive emotional intelligence (EI) and leadership programs inside educational institutions, focusing on evaluating their enduring impact on academic performance and the holistic growth of students (Antonopoulou et al., 2022b).
Another aspect that is correlated to emotional intelligence and is crucial and predictive factor in academic performance, is personality. There is a growing interest in literature upon the study of personality and its contribution to academic achievement.
In a more specific context, the investigation conducted by Dong et al. (2022) sought to explore the influence of individual personality traits on academic achievement. Furthermore, the primary objective of this study was to examine the impact of virtual experience and emotional intelligence on students’ personality traits and academic performance. The results indicate a significant relationship between personality traits and academic performance, with personality traits as robust predictors of higher academic achievement. Nevertheless, it is essential to note that numerous personality traits do not significantly influence academic achievement. The research findings additionally demonstrated a positive correlation between emotional competence and virtual experience among students, indicating a higher likelihood of academic success. Hence, personality traits substantially role (79%) in positively impacting a student’s academic performance.
Additionally, there is a relationship between the virtual experience of emotional intelligence and academic performance, although it is mediated. Simultaneously, this article provides evidence supporting the notion that students’ educational attainment and productivity are influenced by their individual personality traits and emotional intelligence capacities. Moreover, extroversion is a crucial determinant of academic success, whereas pursuing pleasure motivates students. In conclusion, the author posits that integrating virtual experiences and emotional stability can facilitate expeditious learning and seamless adaptation to the digital realm among students.
In a recent investigation conducted by Othman et al. (2020), an endeavor was made to evaluate the influence of personality traits on emotional intelligence and decision-making within the context of medical students enrolled in Lebanese Universities. Additionally, the study aimed to examine the potential mediating role of emotional intelligence in the relationship between personality traits and decision-making styles among this population. Research findings indicate that individuals with higher levels of extraversion tend to exhibit a lower propensity for rational decision-making. Conversely, individuals with higher levels of Agreeableness and conscientiousness tend to demonstrate a greater inclination toward rational decision-making. A significant positive correlation existed between extraversion and openness to experience and a higher inclination towards an intuitive decision-making style.
Conversely, higher levels of Agreeableness and conscientiousness were significantly associated with a lower inclination towards an intuitive decision-making style and a higher inclination towards a dependent one. There was a significant correlation between heightened receptiveness to new experiences and a decreased tendency to rely on others when making decisions. A significant correlation existed between higher levels of Agreeableness, conscientiousness, and neuroticism and a tendency towards a less spontaneous decision-making style. There was no significant association found between any of the personality characteristics and the avoidant decision-making style, which was found to be negatively influenced by emotional intelligence. The relationship between conscientiousness and intuitive decision-making style is fully mediated by emotional intelligence, while the relationship between extroversion and openness to experience with intuitive decision-making style is partially mediated by emotional intelligence. The study’s findings suggest that emotional intelligence has a notable and favorable impact on the intuitive decision-making style while exhibiting an unfavorable influence on the avoidant and dependent decision-making styles. Additionally, the research emphasized the significance of emotional intelligence in mediating the relationship between personality traits and decision-making styles.
Cuartero and Tur (2021) conducted a study to examine the association between perceived academic efficacy and several psychological factors, including neuroticism, extraversion, emotional intelligence, and resilience. The study specifically focused on nursing students and aimed to determine the relative importance of each factor in influencing perceived academic efficacy. The findings indicated that the students exhibited a notable level of perception regarding their academic self-efficacy, emotional intelligence, and resilience, as evidenced by scores surpassing the average values. The findings indicated statistically significant variations in emotional instability and problem-solving capacity across different age groups. The prevalence of emotional instability tends to decline as individuals grow older, whereas their problem-solving capacity typically improves. No significant differences were observed in the other variables analyzed concerning age.
Moreover, a strong correlation exists between the perception of non-academic efficacy and the global trait of emotional intelligence and social support. Concerning personality factors, it can be observed that emotional instability negatively correlates with emotional intelligence factors and resilience. A negative association exists between emotional instability and variables such as gender, age, and extraversion, albeit with relatively weak correlations observed in these instances. A positive association exists between extraversion and well-being, while the overarching construct of emotional intelligence is positively linked to social support. Emotional instability declines as individuals grow older, whereas their problem-solving capabilities tend to improve. Thus, concerning the initial hypothesis positing a positive correlation between emotional instability and age, the findings indicate a negative association.
Nevertheless, the findings do not indicate any statistically significant disparities in extraversion levels between the age mentioned above cohorts. In conjunction with emotional volatility, notable disparities in problem-solving proficiency were observed, with age as a facilitator for developing more effective problem-solving approaches. A positive correlation exists between the global trait of emotional intelligence and the perception of academic efficacy. In essence, individuals who possess proficiency in managing their emotions and those of others are more likely to possess sufficient resources to cope with challenging circumstances effectively.
In a separate investigation, López-Cassà et al. (2022) conducted a study that explored the role of personality and emotional intelligence. The researchers aimed to propose significant modifications to the educational system to foster the holistic development of skills, enhance educational standards, address societal needs, and prioritize emotional education as a mandatory subject in primary and secondary schooling. The findings indicated a stronger association between emotional intelligence and Agreeableness, while a weaker association was observed with Extraversion. Additionally, it was disclosed that the five dimensions of emotional intelligence exhibited a stronger correlation with brain plasticity than stability. In contrast, concerning the association between Emotional Intelligence (EI) and the personality model, the findings indicated that two traits, Agreeableness and neuroticism, emerged as significant predictors of EI. Ultimately, it is plausible that emotional intelligence operates as an independent facet of personality among adults, exhibiting dissimilar patterns compared to its manifestation in children.
Existing research has demonstrated a positive correlation between emotional intelligence and many aspects that contribute to its cultivation, particularly in the context of children’s development into emotionally empathetic and emotionally regulated adults. The present study reveals a noteworthy association between emotional intelligence and many personality traits, namely extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, and autonomy. Moreover, the Big Five variables, namely Neuroticism, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Receptiveness, and Open-mindedness, served as predictors for emotional intelligence. The variable that exhibited the highest predictive power for emotional intelligence was neuroticism, with conscientiousness, extraversion, openness, and receptiveness following in descending order. Moreover, the five dimensions of personality were shown to have a significant correlation with instances of bullying behavior, and it was seen that emotional intelligence had a mediating role in the association between these two constructs. This finding indicates that there is a negative correlation between emotional intelligence and the likelihood of engaging in cyberbullying, as well as with the personality traits of openness, conscientiousness, and agreeableness. In a research investigation, a cohort of individuals ranging from 9 to 13 years of age were administered questionnaires, revealing a discernible association between two important personality components, denoted as b2, and a primary personality factor, referred to as b1, concerning emotional intelligence. However, it is noteworthy that the influence of the big five personality factors (b5) on emotional intelligence is not substantial, except for two factors, namely agreeableness, and neuroticism, which have been found to have predictive value. It is widely believed that the remaining three personality factors develop as individuals mature and are not fully formed during childhood. Concerning the B2 personality qualities, research has indicated that emotional intelligence is mostly linked to plasticity rather than stability. Furthermore, it has been observed that B1 can reasonably predict emotional intelligence.
Additionally, an investigation was conducted to see if emotional intelligence plays a moderating role in the association between children’s shyness and internalizing habits (Jung, 2023). Based on the findings, it can be observed that emotional intelligence has a moderating role in the association between shyness and internalizing activities. In the context of this study, it was observed that shyness exhibited a positive correlation with internalizing behaviors among children characterized by poor emotional intelligence. However, no significant association was found between shyness and internalizing behaviors among children with high emotional intelligence. The findings of this study indicate that the possession of emotional intelligence may serve as a protective factor against the development of internalizing tendencies among a subset of shy children during middle childhood.
The assessment of emotional intelligence was additionally conducted by evaluating the qualities of emotional attentiveness, clarity, and healing. The survey results indicate a lower score on the emotional recovery dimension, suggesting that students may have a limited capacity to effectively regulate the significance of their emotions. Previous studies have indicated a lack of association between social desirability and the comprehension and examination of emotions, which falls within the domain of emotional intelligence. A modest association was seen between age and the perception and evaluation of emotions, as well as the comprehension and examination of emotions. Previous studies have endeavored to establish a connection between creativity and emotional intelligence (Andreani, 2012; Costa & Faria; 2020; Joulaei et al., 2022. Creativity has been identified as a significant predictor of a child’s academic achievement, although emotional intelligence does not exhibit a significant relationship with the prediction of said performance. The effective management of emotions that serve as catalysts for creativity is a significant factor in achieving success within a creative endeavor (Agnoli et al., 2022).
Additionally, the domains of neuropsychology and emotional intelligence (EI) significantly impact academic performance. This study aims to examine the relationship between neuropsychological variables and Emotional Intelligence in relation to academic accomplishment in the school environment (Billings et al., 2014).
Current research has emphasized the significance of incorporating neuropsychology and emotional intelligence (EI) into educational approaches. The cultivation of mental health, emotional awareness, and social skills among student populations can create an educational setting that supports academic achievement (Gkintoni et al., 2023; Gkintoni & Dimakos, 2022). Gaining insight into the neurological foundations of emotions and learning can assist educators in formulating instructional approaches that accommodate a wide range of emotional and cognitive requirements.
The discoveries mentioned above contribute substantially to the expanding corpus of literature that emphasizes the significance of neuropsychology and emotional intelligence (EI) within education. The authors suggest that cognitive health and emotional intelligence (EI) are significant in determining academic achievement, emphasizing their central rather than peripheral importance. Subsequent investigations aim to elucidate the neuropsychological dimensions of Emotional Intelligence to a greater extent while also delving into potential interventions (Stamatiou et al., 2022; Yang, 2022) that might be employed to augment these facets within the educational environment.
Through the present study it is also presented a review of the correlations between neuropsychological testing, psychometric emotional intelligence measures, and academic performance metrics in a varied sample of students. It is highlighted that there is a positive correlation between neuropsychological solid functioning and high levels of Emotional Intelligence among kids, which is associated with academic success. These individuals demonstrate heightened cognitive capacities, proficient emotion regulation, exceptional problem-solving skills, and perseverance in the face of stress - all crucial for achieving academic success (Gkintoni et al., 2021). Upon examining the data, it becomes evident that a robust association exists between cognitive well-being, emotional intelligence (EI), and scholastic achievement. The involvement of brain regions associated with emotional processing, namely the prefrontal cortex and limbic system, is of considerable importance in emotional intelligence (EI) and cognitive functioning (Gkintoni et al., 2023a). Hence, maintaining good brain health plays a significant role in enhancing Emotional Intelligence, thereby aiding the process of effective learning and academic attainment (Sortwell et al., 2023).
2. Materials and Methods
This study presents a comprehensive examination of the existing literature conducted in the English language. The task involved conducting a literature search on the topic of emotional intelligence. The inclusion criteria for articles in the study were as follows: 1) Articles had to be written in the English language, 2) Articles had to be produced between the years 2016 and 2023, 3) Articles had to be relevant to the subject of psychology and education, and 4) Articles had to be at the final stage of publishing. 5) Verification that the content is highly pertinent to the subject. The study encompassed articles pertaining to emotional intelligence in relation to students, teachers, and the broader educational context. Following an extensive search of databases and the application of relevant filters, a total of 462 articles were identified. Subsequently, 204 articles underwent screening based on their titles, resulting in the distinction of 85 articles. Finally, after careful consideration, 64 papers were included for further analysis (Figure 1).
To fulfill this objective, a comprehensive search was conducted in Scopus, PsycINFO, PubMed, and WoS databases. The search used the following keywords: emotional intelligence, student/teacher, academic performance, and school setting. The present study incorporated various types of studies (Table 1), which were classified into three primary categories: (a) Randomized Controlled Trial (RCT), b) Longitudinal, c) Review and Metanalysis (Figure 2).
The following section presents a concise overview of five research questions formulated by analyzing keywords, grouping, and identifying relevant studies in the current systematic review. These research questions pertain to the relationship between emotional intelligence and optimal academic performance, focusing on critical factors such as engagement, motivation, personality, and behavior:
[RQ1] What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and academic achievement?
[RQ2] How does emotional intelligence affect student engagement in the classroom?
[RQ3] How does emotional intelligence affect student performance on standardized tests?
[RQ4] How does emotional intelligence affect student behavior in the classroom?
[RQ5] How does emotional intelligence affect student motivation to learn?
3. Results
Through the present systematic analysis, an attempt was made to answer the five research questions posed from the beginning:
[RQ1] What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and academic achievement?
The correlation between emotional intelligence and academic achievement has garnered significant attention in numerous academic studies. Emotional intelligence pertains to the capacity to identify, comprehend, and regulate one’s emotions in addition to the emotions exhibited by others. Conversely, academic achievement pertains to the degree of accomplishment a student achieves in their scholarly endeavors. Several studies have indicated that there is a positive relationship between emotional intelligence and academic achievement. MacCann et al., (2019), found that emotional intelligence is associated with academic performance, with ability emotional intelligence being a stronger predictor than self-rated or mixed emotional intelligence. More specifically, the relationship between emotional intelligence and academic achievement is positive, with an overall effect of ρ = .20. Ability in emotional intelligence was found to be a stronger predictor of performance in humanities than science, and self-rated EI was a stronger predictor of grades than standardized test scores. Also, mechanisms were proposed to explain the link between emotional intelligence and academic performance: regulating academic emotions, building social relationships at school, and academic content overlap with EI.
Sánchez-Álvarez (2020) also found a significant effect of emotional intelligence on academic performance, with ability emotional intelligence having a higher average association with academic performance than self-report or mixed emotional intelligence. The relationship between emotional intelligence and academic achievement is significant, with higher average association between emotional intelligence and academic performance when emotional intelligence is measured as an ability. Other researchers (Camacho-Morles et al., 2021) demonstrate that the relationship between emotional intelligence and academic achievement is positive for enjoyment of learning (ρ = .27), negative for anger (ρ = − .35) and boredom (ρ = − .25), and near 0 for frustration (ρ = − .02). Other studies (Pekrun et al., 2017) indicated that the relationship between emotional intelligence and academic achievement is reciprocal, with positive emotions positively predicting subsequent achievement and achievement positively predicting positive emotions, and negative emotions negatively predicting achievement and achievement negatively predicting negative emotions. Furthermore, the relationship between emotional intelligence and academic achievement is positive for positive high arousal (PHA) and positive low arousal (PLA) emotions, and negative for negative high arousal (NHA) and negative low arousal (NLA) emotions as indicated by Lei & Cui, (2016). In another study the role of gender is indicated and found that the relationship between emotional intelligence and academic achievement is moderate to large, with stronger effects for female, collectivistic culture, and final grades as language measures (Wang & Liu, 2023).
Additionally, some other numerous empirical investigations have demonstrated a significant correlation between emotional intelligence and scholastic attainment. An investigation conducted by Chew et al. (2013) within the medical student population revealed a significant correlation between emotional intelligence and academic achievement. The research findings indicate that emotional intelligence significantly enhances an individual’s cognitive performance, surpassing the influence of general intelligence.
A study by Suleman et al. (2019) discovered a positive correlation between emotional intelligence and academic achievement among undergraduate students. The research underscored the significance of emotional intelligence in augmenting students’ scholastic achievement. The study by Mohzan et al. (2013) examined the impact of emotional intelligence on academic performance and identified a statistically significant correlation between these two factors. The research posited that there exists a correlation between emotional intelligence and the academic achievement of students. Additionally, a scholarly investigation conducted by Mistry and Parmar (2023) explored the correlation between emotional intelligence and academic performance within the context of undergraduate students. The research revealed a significant positive relationship between emotional intelligence and academic attainment, suggesting that individuals with higher emotional intelligence typically demonstrate higher academic performance.
Conversely, certain studies have presented inconclusive results or failed to establish a significant correlation between emotional intelligence and academic performance. In a study conducted by Farhan and Alfin (2019), it was determined that there was no statistically significant relationship between emotional intelligence and academic achievement in student populations. Similarly, Nia (2018) found no statistically significant correlation between emotional intelligence and academic performance in a sample of university students. Also, Kwon (2018), found that negative emotionality and poor emotion regulation can negatively impact academic achievement. The relationship between emotional intelligence and academic achievement is bidirectional, with negative emotionality and emotion regulation having a significant directional effect on achievement, and academic engagement mediating the link from negative emotionality and emotion regulation to achievement. Camacho-Morles et al., (2021), found that enjoyment of learning is positively related to academic performance, while anger and boredom are negatively related. The relationship between emotional intelligence and academic achievement is positive for enjoyment of learning (ρ = .27), negative for anger (ρ = − .35) and boredom (ρ = − .25), and near 0 for frustration (ρ = − .02).
Also some other studies (Lichtenfeld et al., 2023), found that the relationship between emotional intelligence and academic achievement is reciprocal, with enjoyment positively predicting subsequent achievement, and achievement positively predicting subsequent enjoyment. Boredom and anxiety negatively predicted subsequent achievement, and achievement negatively predicted subsequent boredom and anxiety. Moreover, researchers like (Nasvytienė & Lazdauskas, 2021) indicated that the relationship between emotional intelligence and academic achievement is positive for effortful control and inverse for negative affectivity, with no apparent trend of surgency.
It is crucial to acknowledge that the correlation between emotional intelligence and academic attainment can be impacted by many factors, including but not limited to cultural disparities, educational environments, and personal attributes. The findings may also be influenced by the specific components of emotional intelligence and the assessment tools employed to measure it.
In summary, the available evidence indicates a positive correlation between emotional intelligence and academic performance; however, it is essential to note that the characteristics and strength of this correlation may differ among various research studies. The impact of emotional intelligence on students’ academic performance is positive. However, additional investigation is required to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the underlying mechanisms and contextual variables that shape this association.
[RQ2] How does emotional intelligence affect student engagement in the classroom?
The correlation between emotional intelligence and student engagement within the classroom has garnered significant attention in educational research. Student engagement, conversely, pertains to the degree of participation, curiosity, and drive students to exhibit in their educational endeavors. Numerous academic studies have examined the influence of emotional intelligence on student engagement within the educational setting.
The papers that were included in systematic analysis suggest that emotional intelligence is positively related to student engagement in the classroom. Zhoc 2020 found that emotional intelligence positively predicted all dimensions of student engagement and promoted key learning outcomes, generic learning outcomes, and students’ satisfaction with the university experience. Manwaring et al., (2017) found that emotional engagement is cyclical and influenced by student control appraisals, value appraisals, achievement goals, and the classroom environment. The effect of emotional intelligence on student engagement in the classroom is influenced by course design and student perception variables, student control appraisals, value appraisals, achievement goals, and the classroom environment, as well as student multitasking and the importance of the activity.
Ulmanen (2016) found that emotional engagement remained stable over time and that emotional engagement in teacher-student relationships associated with emotional engagement in peer relations and explained the perceived peer-group relations over time. However, Wang (2021) found that teachers’ emotional labor and perceived student engagement did not have a predictive relationship.
Sofeia, (2023) indicated that the effect of emotional intelligence on student engagement in the classroom is mediated by self-efficacy and emotional value expectations, which are influenced by perceived teacher student and peer interaction.
Martin & Collie, (2019) demonstrated that the effect of emotional intelligence on student engagement in the classroom is that an increase in the number of positive relationships with teachers predicts greater school engagement, while an increase in the number of negative relationships with teachers does not lead to a decline in engagement. There is also a cumulative engagement yield through increasing the number of positive teacher–student relationships across students’ school subjects.
In another study conducted by Mega et al. (2014), it was discovered that the emotional state of students significantly impacts their ability to self-regulate their learning and maintain motivation, ultimately influencing their academic performance. This implies that emotional intelligence significantly impacts fostering student engagement and achieving academic success. The study conducted by Trigueros et al. (2019) examined the impact of emotional intelligence on the emotional well-being of adolescents in the context of physical education sessions. The research revealed that emotional intelligence exerted a positive influence on the emotional well-being of students, suggesting that a higher level of emotional intelligence could potentially enhance student engagement within the educational setting. In their study, Tang and He (2023) investigated the correlation between emotional intelligence and learning motivation among college students amidst the COVID-19 pandemic. The research findings indicate a positive correlation between emotional intelligence and learning motivation, increasing student engagement within the virtual classroom setting.
Moreover, the study conducted by Iqbal et al. (2022) investigated the effects of emotional intelligence on students’ study habits within the context of blended learning environments. The research revealed that the association between study habits and cognitive engagement was mediated by emotional intelligence, suggesting that emotional intelligence could potentially enhance student engagement in online learning environments. Furthermore, a recent study by Thomas and Heath (2022) examined the emotional intelligence profiles of university students and revealed a significant correlation between emotional intelligence and various domains of engagement. The research emphasized the significance of considering the influence of emotional intelligence on various dimensions of student engagement. Furthermore, the study conducted by Havik and Westergård (2019) aimed to investigate the correlations between students’ subjective evaluations of classroom interactions and their levels of emotional and behavioral engagement. The research revealed a significant correlation between positive classroom interactions and increased emotional and behavioral engagement levels. This implies that the emotional intelligence of both students and teachers can impact student engagement within the educational setting. In general, the research findings indicate that emotional intelligence benefits student engagement within the educational setting. Enhanced emotional intelligence has the potential to positively influence various aspects of academic performance, such as self-regulated learning, motivation, positive emotional state, and effective classroom interactions. These factors play a crucial role in fostering student engagement within educational settings. Nevertheless, it is crucial to acknowledge that the correlation between emotional intelligence and student engagement can be impacted by many factors, including but not limited to cultural disparities, educational environments, and individual traits.
[RQ3] How does emotional intelligence affect student performance on standardized tests?
The correlation between emotional intelligence and academic achievement on standardized assessments has been a focal point of investigation within educational research. Standardized assessments are extensively employed to evaluate students’ comprehension and proficiency across diverse academic disciplines. Numerous academic studies have delved into the implications of emotional intelligence on the academic achievements of students in the context of standardized tests. The papers from the current systematic analysis suggest that emotional intelligence is positively associated with academic performance, including standardized test scores (MacCann 2019). Additionally, emotional intelligence is linked to students’ emotions towards school and academic achievement (Costa 2023). Emotional intelligence can also influence study stress, burnout, and performance of students in online classes (Alam 2021). Additionally, a meta-analysis found a moderate-to-large positive relationship between emotional intelligence and second/foreign language learning achievement (Wang 2023).
Muhtadi et al., ( 2022) demonstrated that the effect of emotional intelligence on student performance on standardized tests is a large effect size with a combined effect size value of (M = 0.65) and a standard error of (SEM = 0.07). Other researchers, (Linden et al., 2017) indicated that the effect of emotional intelligence on student performance on standardized tests is a positive, but more moderate, correlation with ability EI (r ≈ .28). Also, research conducted by Alam et al., (2021) found that the effect of emotional intelligence on student performance on standardized tests is significant, as it can influence study stress, burnout, and performance of students. Furthermore, Lozano-Blasco et al., (2022) highlight that the effect of emotional intelligence on student performance on standardized tests is a positive and moderate relationship (r = 0.367; p < 0.001), with the explanatory models on age or sex not being significant.
The study conducted by Chew et al. (2013) examined the correlation between emotional intelligence and academic performance among medical students. The research findings indicate a positive relationship between emotional intelligence and cognitive-based performance at the individual level, which goes beyond the influence of general intelligence. This suggests that there may be a positive correlation between emotional intelligence and students’ performance on standardized tests. In their cross-sectional study, Suleman et al. (2019) examined the relationship between emotional intelligence and academic achievement among undergraduate students, revealing a positive correlation. While the present study did not specifically center on standardized tests, it is worth noting that academic achievement is frequently evaluated using a range of assessments, which may include standardized tests. Elevated emotional intelligence could potentially enhance one’s performance on standardized assessments.
In addition, Maul (2012) conducted a study to assess the validity of the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) in gauging emotional intelligence. Although the present study did not explicitly examine the correlation between emotional intelligence and performance on standardized tests, it underscored the significance of employing reliable assessment tools to gauge emotional intelligence accurately. Using reliable indicators of emotional intelligence can offer a more precise comprehension of its influence on diverse outcomes, such as performance levels on standardized assessments. It is imperative to acknowledge that emotional intelligence is a complex concept, and numerous factors can affect its influence on performance in standardized tests. An empirical study by Kaliappan and Amran (2023) revealed a significant positive correlation between emotional intelligence and motivation in primary school students. Motivation plays a pivotal role in students’ engagement and effort, thereby exerting a potential impact on their performance in standardized assessments.
Furthermore, Wu (2011) conducted a study to examine the correlation between emotional intelligence and job performance within the finance industry. Although the primary focus of this study did not revolve around students or standardized tests, it effectively underscored the advantageous influence of emotional intelligence on job performance. This implies that academic performance, including performance on standardized tests, is positively affected by emotional intelligence. In summary, although there exists a scarcity of direct research explicitly investigating the correlation between emotional intelligence and students’ performance on standardized tests, the existing body of evidence indicates a potential positive influence of emotional intelligence on academic achievement. Emotional intelligence plays a significant role in enhancing an individual’s cognitive-based performance, surpassing the influence of general intelligence, and is closely linked to achieving academic success. Hence, an elevated level of emotional intelligence could potentially enhance one’s performance on standardized assessments. However, additional research focused on investigating the correlation between emotional intelligence and standardized test performance is necessary to establish more definitive findings.
[RQ4] How does emotional intelligence affect student behavior in the classroom?
The correlation between emotional intelligence and student behavior within the classroom setting has garnered considerable attention in this educational research field. Students’ behavior within the classroom encompasses a range of dimensions, including their level of engagement, active participation, cooperative interactions, and adherence to established classroom regulations. Numerous academic studies have examined the influence of emotional intelligence on student conduct within the educational setting.
The effect of emotional intelligence on student behavior in the classroom is influenced by course design and student perception variables, student control appraisals, value appraisals, achievement goals, and the classroom environment, as well as student multitasking and the importance of the activity. The results indicate that emotional and cognitive engagement are highly correlated, and that emotional engagement can lead to higher levels of cognitive engagement. The effect of emotional intelligence on student engagement in the classroom is significant, as evidenced by the differences found between the pre and post measurements of BarOn’s ICE emotional intelligence inventory (Quiroz, 2020). In another research (Zhoc et al., 2020), the effect of emotional intelligence on student engagement in the classroom is positive, and that it promotes key learning outcomes such as generic learning outcomes, and students’ satisfaction with the university experience.
The study conducted by Fteiha and Awwad (2020) aimed to explore the correlation between emotional intelligence and stress-coping strategies in a sample of students. The present study elucidated the potential impact of emotional intelligence on stress management, thereby indirectly influencing behavioral responses. The study conducted by Fabio and Kenny (2012) aimed to investigate the impact of emotional intelligence on decision-making styles within the context of high school students.
The study posited that emotional intelligence influences decision-making styles, potentially affecting student behavior. The study conducted by Fuentes et al. (2019) investigated the correlation between family functioning, emotional intelligence, values, and aggressive behavior among adolescents. The present study elucidated the inverse correlation between aggression and emotional intelligence. Emotional intelligence can facilitate the cultivation of prosocial behavior and the regulation of negative emotions, thereby impacting classroom conduct. The study by Alam and Ahmad (2018) examined the impact of teachers’ emotional intelligence on improving student academic performance. The primary focus of this study was to highlight the potential impact of teachers’ emotional intelligence on establishing a conducive classroom atmosphere. The establishment of a positive classroom environment has the potential to cultivate favorable student behavior, including heightened levels of engagement and collaboration. In their study, Imran et al. (2013) investigated the correlation between emotional intelligence, empathy, and several factors among medical students. The potential influence of emotional intelligence on the cultivation of empathy and its effects on student conduct toward peers and teachers warrants consideration.
In addition, the study conducted by Xiang et al. (2022) examined the impact of student-teacher relationships on the empathy of children in the school-age group while also considering emotional intelligence as a mediating variable. The research emphasized the significance of emotional intelligence in moderating the association between student-teacher relationships and empathy. The potential influence of emotional intelligence on student behavior and the cultivation of empathy is worth considering. In their study, Wan et al. (2023) investigated the correlation between the teacher-student relationship and emotional intelligence in adolescents. The research discovered a significant positive association between the degree of closeness and supportiveness exhibited in the teacher-student relationship and the level of emotional intelligence demonstrated by students. The presence of emotional intelligence has the potential to foster favorable student conduct, including but not limited to traits such as receptiveness, compassion, and self-control. Furthermore, González-Alonso et al., (2020) indicated that the effect of emotional intelligence on student behavior in the classroom is that the development of communicative competence in students has a significant impact on their level of coexistence with other classmates, although the results suggested the need for longitudinal implementation of the programme in order to improve school coexistence and social skills of students from the early stages of education. Additionally, Taylor et al., (2017) demonstrated that the effect of emotional intelligence on student behavior in the classroom is that it can promote positive youth development, social emotional skills, attitudes, and indicators of well-being, and can improve critical aspects of students’ developmental trajectories.
Maamari & Majdalani, (2019) indicated that the effect of emotional intelligence on student engagement in the classroom is that it increases students’ emotional intelligence and satisfaction, and that class interactions are the primary factor in increasing students’ emotional intelligence. The study recommends that universities hire emotionally intelligent teachers to increase students’ emotional intelligence and satisfaction. Also, Li and Xu, (2019) underlined that the effect of emotional intelligence on student behavior in the classroom is positive, as the intervention was effective in improving emotional intelligence, boosting more positive classroom emotions and alleviating negative classroom emotions.
Furthermore, the study conducted by Wang et al. (2016) examined the impact of emotional intelligence and self-leadership on the ability of students to manage and adapt to stressful situations. The study posited a potential relationship between emotional intelligence and the coping strategies employed by students, potentially affecting their behavior and overall well-being within the educational setting. In general, the research findings indicate a potential relationship between emotional intelligence and student behavior within the educational setting. Emotional intelligence can positively impact various aspects of human functioning, such as stress management, decision-making processes, empathetic responses, and the cultivation of constructive behaviors. Nevertheless, it is crucial to acknowledge that multiple variables influence student behavior, encompassing individual dissimilarities, the classroom milieu, and interpersonal exchanges. Additional investigation is required to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the precise mechanisms by which emotional intelligence influences student behavior within the educational setting.
[RQ5] How does emotional intelligence affect student motivation to learn?
The relationship between emotional intelligence and student motivation to acquire knowledge has been a focal point of investigation within educational research. Student motivation to learn encompasses the intrinsic factors that drive, stimulate interest, and generate enthusiasm among students concerning their educational endeavors. The papers that were analyzed in the present study, suggest that emotional intelligence is positively related to student motivation to learn. Quílez-Robres et al., (2021) found that emotional factors, including emotional intelligence, had a small positive effect size on academic achievement in children aged 6-12 years. The relationship between emotional intelligence and academic achievement is positive and small, with a moderate positive effect size for motivational and social factors. More specifically, the effect of emotional intelligence on student motivation to learn is small but positive.
Alam (2021) found that emotional intelligence influenced study stress, burnout, and performance of Pakistani students. Wang (2022) found that emotional intelligence was negatively correlated with burnout among foreign language teachers. Costa and Faria (2023) found that implicit theories of emotional intelligence were related to emotional and academic outcomes in secondary school students. These findings suggest that emotional intelligence is an important factor in student motivation to learn. The relationship between emotional intelligence and academic achievement is mediated by ability and trait emotional intelligence, and that fostering more dynamic trait emotional intelligence among students can enhance emotional and academic outcomes.
The mediating role of self-efficacy and social support was observed in the relationship between emotional intelligence and learning motivation. Moreover, the study conducted by Trigueros et al. (2019) examined the impact of emotional intelligence, motivation, and resilience on academic achievement and the adoption of healthy lifestyle behaviors in the adolescent population. The research underscored the significance of positive emotions concerning student engagement and motivation. The presence of positive emotions has been observed to have a positive impact on student’s motivation and learning outcomes. The study conducted by Iqbal et al. (2022) examined the effects of emotional intelligence on students’ study habits within the context of blended learning environments. The research revealed significant and positive associations between emotional intelligence and study habits, with cognitive engagement as a mediator variable. Students’ cognitive engagement is influenced by emotional intelligence, which in turn impacts their motivation to engage in learning activities.
Additionally, a study was conducted by Farhan and Rofi’Ulmuiz (2021) to examine the influence of emotional intelligence and religiosity on the academic performance of Muslim students. The research revealed a significant positive correlation between emotional intelligence and student learning motivation. The presence of emotional intelligence was found to have a positive impact on students’ level of motivation to participate in their educational endeavors actively. Furthermore, Arias et al. (2022) investigated the correlation between emotional intelligence and academic motivation among elementary school students. The research revealed a positive correlation between emotional intelligence and intrinsic motivations, specifically the desire to acquire new knowledge and pleasure from engaging in various activities. Their emotional intelligence influences students’ motivation to participate in their academic endeavors. In general, the study’s findings indicate that emotional intelligence benefits students’ motivation to engage in the learning process. A positive correlation exists between students’ elevated levels of emotional intelligence and their inclination to participate in educational endeavors actively. Emotional intelligence’s impact on students’ academic experience, such as self-regulated learning, stress-coping mechanisms, decision-making abilities, and positive emotional states, plays a significant role in shaping their overall learning motivation. Nevertheless, it is imperative to acknowledge that multiple factors influence student motivation, encompassing individual variances, the ambiance within the classroom, and the pedagogical approaches employed. Additional investigation is required to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the precise mechanisms by which emotional intelligence influences students’ motivation in their learning endeavors.
4. Discussion
The significance of emotional intelligence is paramount when it comes to successfully executing a creative endeavor, since it involves effectively navigating the emotional dynamics that arise throughout the process, particularly when these dynamics are unfavorable. There is a positive relationship between emotional intelligence and creative self-efficacy, and it seems that self-esteem may have an impact on emotional intelligence (Ali, 2020; Al-Qadri & Zhao, 2021).
Overall, the observed disparity in emotional intelligence between males and females did not reach a level of statistical significance. In a more particular manner, it was shown that girls had greater scores than boys in terms of emotional attentiveness. The cultivation of resilience has been found to have a beneficial impact on the enhancement of emotional intelligence, particularly among male individuals. This is evident through the identification of notable statistical disparities in emotional intelligence performance among boys, specifically in domains such as problem-solving, happiness, impulse control, self-awareness, optimism, and self-focus. Conversely, the female participants analyzed in the study primarily experience a notable impact in terms of optimism, although in all other aspects, the statistical disparity compared to their male counterparts remains significant. A significant association persists between gender and the perception, appraisal, interpretation, and analysis of emotions. Ultimately, gender appears to play a significant effect primarily in the domain of self-esteem, with a discernible beneficial impact on boys, while its influence on girls remains comparatively less pronounced.
The efficacy of educational interventions is still influenced by the emotional intelligence of children. Nevertheless, it is plausible that implementing an educational intervention targeting the enhancement of cognitive and metacognitive aspects of children’s creativity may yield greater advantages for individuals with limited emotional intelligence. Ultimately, the findings of the analysis indicated that the training had a positive impact on the capacity of children with low and medium levels of emotional intelligence to generate original material. The present study demonstrates the relationship between school atmosphere and emotional intelligence (Akbarilakeh et al., 2018). There is no significant association between gender and nation with regards to the correlation between school climate and measures of emotional intelligence. Moreover, there exists a significant correlation between the comprehension and examination of emotions and academic achievement, particularly in relation to literacy and grammatical difficulties.
Previous studies have examined the potential impact of various programs and activities related to emotional intelligence on subsequent levels of attainment. One of the conducted investigations observed that the experimental group, which engaged in a conventional game program, had a statistically significant enhancement in specific aspects of emotional intelligence, specifically self-awareness and relationship management, in comparison to the control group. This study investigates the impact of emotional intelligence training on the development of emotional intelligence in children. In this study, half of the participants are assigned to engage in activities related to emotional intelligence majors, while the remaining half are designated as the control group, enabling the examination of subsequent outcomes. The findings of the study indicated that the children in the experimental group had elevated levels of emotional intelligence, which is consistent with prior research conducted in this particular domain (Antonopoulou et al., 2022a).
One of the research projects conducted was to examine the potential mitigating impact of elevated levels of self-concept and emotional intelligence on individuals, particularly teachers, in relation to the negative consequences associated with remote learning and the COVID-19 pandemic. The findings of the study indicated that during the COVID-19 pandemic, educators had heightened levels of burnout and diminished self-esteem as a consequence of engaging in remote instructional practices. The impact of COVID-19 varied based on individuals’ levels of emotional intelligence. Teachers who possess greater levels of emotional intelligence are more adept at effectively managing the negative consequences associated with these impacts.
The aforementioned findings unequivocally demonstrate the efficacy of emotional intelligence in the lives of adolescents, specifically in relation to academic matters that pertain to them. To delve into greater detail, commencing with the facet of personality and its fundamental attributes, it is imperative to underscore that neuroticism holds considerable prominence as a detrimental predictor of Trait Emotional Intelligence (Trait E.I.). Nevertheless, some studies conducted in developing nations, including Nigeria, Saudi Arabia, and Malaysia, have failed to observe a statistically significant association between neuroticism and Trait Emotional Intelligence (Trait E.I.). The potential reasons for this variation could be attributed to cultural influences, individual values, environmental circumstances, or the utilization of alternative psychometric instruments in addition to the emotional intelligence measurement tool developed by Petrides. The results of the study suggest a strong association between the Big Five personality traits and Trait Emotional Intelligence (Trait E.I.). Nevertheless, the correlation between these two variables is a gradual process, as the five components collectively exert a greater influence than the four factors of Trait E.I. In relation to the B2 and B1 personality factors, it can be asserted that there is a potential association between emotional intelligence and stability and plasticity. However, it is important to note that this assertion lacks empirical evidence from previous research. Conversely, the comprehensive impact of factor B1 has been acknowledged and supported by existing scholarly literature. The aforementioned evidence highlights the imperative nature of incorporating social and emotional development initiatives in the early stages of schooling in order to cultivate youngsters who possess adaptability and versatility in social contexts.
Limited research has been conducted on the influence of social-cognitive variables, namely emotional intelligence, as a moderating factor in the relationship between shyness and internalizing behavior. Children who exhibit shyness and possess a comparatively elevated level of emotional intelligence may demonstrate enhanced abilities to effectively manage negative emotions, such as dread. This may serve as a protective factor against the development of internalizing habits. Moreover, it has been shown that introverted children who possess elevated levels of emotional intelligence demonstrate an enhanced ability to comprehend the emotional states of their peers. This heightened understanding of emotions can significantly contribute to the cultivation and establishment of social connections. Collectively, these associations serve as a safeguard against the development of internalizing tendencies, such as social anxiety, in children who exhibit shyness. Moreover, scholarly research has underscored the malleability of emotional intelligence in early life as a means to mitigate the risk of children internalizing maladaptive behaviors. Potential areas for further investigation may involve exploring the direct associations between specific subcategories of shyness and emotional intelligence, as well as their impact on the relationship between various subcategories of shyness and internalizing difficulties.
In this study, the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional recovery is examined, with a specific emphasis on the connection between gender and emotional intelligence, as well as emotional attention. The findings indicate that there exists a correlation between gender and emotional intelligence, as girls tend to exhibit higher scores compared to boys. However, it is also observed that gender and country do not have a significant impact on the association between school climate and various dimensions of emotional intelligence. Previous studies have indicated a noteworthy association between gender and the perception, appraisal, interpretation, and analysis of emotions. The aforementioned findings have been subject to further examination, yielding comparable outcomes. This observation is linked to the age of the children, indicating that at this specific developmental stage, there is a greater capacity for comprehending and analyzing emotions rather than more specialized aspects of emotional intelligence. Based on the aforementioned results, there appears to be no significant interdependence between emotional intelligence and creativity. However, previous studies have consistently demonstrated a strong correlation between emotional intelligence and academic performance, particularly among student populations. This may elucidate the present findings, as the observed lack of a strong association can be attributed to the incomplete development of emotional intelligence and maturity during this stage of life. This highlights the necessity of implementing programs aimed at fostering emotional intelligence in children of this age group, an approach that has already been used by certain studies and has yielded favorable outcomes.
The findings pertaining to the potential impact of gender on emotional intelligence have generated conflicting perspectives. There is a body of research that highlights the notable enhancement of emotional intelligence in females, who tend to possess a more advanced emotional and empathic capacity compared to boys. Conversely, alternative perspectives emphasize certain dimensions of emotional intelligence that appear to be more advantageous for boys, such as resilience. These findings suggest that there is a need to provide additional support and encouragement for girls in some areas. Moreover, the aforementioned phenomenon may be influenced by various elements, including the socio-environmental context in which children have been raised, the stimuli they have been exposed to, and their subsequent educational experiences. Hence, further investigation is warranted to elucidate the underlying causes and their impact on emotional intelligence with respect to gender.
Emotional intelligence in the context of creativity has emerged as a subject of considerable interest among researchers. The inclusion of emotions, namely emotional intelligence, should be regarded as an essential component of creative thinking. Not only do they exert impact on the creative process, but they also play a vital role in its formation. Furthermore, the implementation of educational interventions has the potential to facilitate the development of self-confidence in youngsters exhibiting a low emotional intelligence score, particularly in relation to their creative aptitudes. Moreover, the inclusion of programs into the children’s daily schedule poses a significant concern in relation to the educational process. The development of emotional intelligence has been considerably influenced by programs, such as games. In particular, these interventions facilitate the development of emotional recognition and regulation skills, foster positive peer interactions, and enhance self-esteem among children. One of the programs used in this study demonstrated the impact of cultivating emotional intelligence, as supported by prior studies. In this study, it is shown that emotional intelligence programs not only have an impact on individuals, but also on students’ academic achievement. Nevertheless, it is worth noting that these programs and the cultivation of emotional intelligence from infancy can have a significant impact on individuals as they transition into adulthood. The aforementioned concerns may serve as a subject of future electronic study to ascertain the extent to which the regular cultivation of children’s emotional intelligence within their everyday environment influences its progression, as well as to determine the enduring effects of such programs on the lives of subsequent generations.
Recent research undertaken in the aftermath of the COVID-19 epidemic has revealed the significant role that emotional intelligence plays in effectively navigating difficult circumstances. In relation to the educational process and the role of teachers, it is crucial that they possess a well-developed personality dimension in order to exert a positive influence on children and effectively navigate the various challenging and demanding situations that may arise. These situations can vary in severity, ranging from minor to highly significant. It is important to note that teachers lacking mature emotional intelligence are susceptible to becoming immobilized, thereby potentially impacting the well-being of the children under their care
Limitations
Notwithstanding their fundamental discoveries, the aforementioned research are characterized by several limitations. One notable limitation commonly observed in numerous scholarly studies pertains to the absence of generalizability of findings, as they frequently pertain solely to certain populations and specific groups of individuals. Therefore, in the absence of more research, it is unfeasible to ascertain if comparable outcomes would arise in scenarios involving distinct populations, such as varying cultures, nationalities, socio-economic groups, and so forth. Another notable constraint is the lack of a control group in numerous articles, which diminishes the credibility of the findings. Moreover, it is crucial to address the significant constraint of the lack of long-term outcomes. The true impact of these investigations can only be determined by studying their effects over an extended period.
5. Conclusions
In conclusion, the review presented a thorough examination of the significant importance of Emotional Intelligence within the broader context of the educational setting. The findings of the study provide evidence that emotional intelligence (EI) has a substantial impact on academic achievements, interpersonal connections, and the general environment within educational institutions. These results emphasize the crucial role of fostering and acknowledging EI within the education system. The appropriate comprehension, regulation, and utilization of emotions have been found to contribute to the cultivation of healthier interpersonal connections, enhanced conflict resolution abilities, and increased academic achievements among student populations. This technology facilitates the more efficient management of classrooms by instructors, allowing them to better understand and address the emotional needs of children while also improving their ability to cope with personal pressures. As a result, it enhances job satisfaction and mitigates the risk of burnout.
In light of the multifaceted nature of educational institutions, the significance of emotional intelligence is heightened, since schools serve as more than mere centers for academic instruction. These settings serve as platforms for individuals to acquire skills in managing the social and emotional dimensions of life. Therefore, the incorporation of emotional intelligence within the educational environment is both desirable and imperative. The educational framework presented provides a comprehensive approach that acknowledges and nurtures the emotional well-being of all those involved.
Furthermore, educational institutions that place emphasis on the development of emotional intelligence tend to foster a more favorable and efficient environment that supports the process of acquiring knowledge. It is probable that individuals may encounter a reduced occurrence of behavioral challenges, enhanced rapport between students and teachers, and increased levels of academic attainment.
In the pursuit of fostering the development of future generations, placing a heightened emphasis on emotional intelligence could prove to be a very efficacious approach in augmenting the entire educational milieu, ultimately culminating in a society that is more attuned to emotions, empathic, and resilient. The significance of emotional intelligence within the educational setting is of great magnitude, and its impact on fostering a more empathetic and caring global society is substantial.
Additional research is necessary to explore the potential effectiveness of comprehensive emotional intelligence (EI) programs applied in educational institutions and their long-lasting impact on students’ academic results that transcend beyond the boundaries of the educational environment.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, E.G.; methodology, E.G., C.H., I.D. and G.N.; formal analysis, E.G.; investigation, E.G. and C.H.; resources, E.G., C.H., I.D. and G.N.; data curation, E.G., C.H.; writing—original draft preparation, E.G., C.H. and I.D.; writing—review and editing, E.G., C.H., I.D. and G.N.; visualization, E.G. and C.H.; supervision, C.H., I.D., G.N.; project administration, E.G., C.H., I.D. and G.N. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
The publication fees of this manuscript will be financed by the Research Council of the University of Patras, Greece.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests regarding the publication of this manuscript. In addition, the ethical issues, including plagiarism, informed consent, misconduct, data fabrication and/or falsification, double publication and/or submission, and redundancies have been completely observed by the authors.
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Figure 1.
Flowchart of Prisma Methodology.
Figure 2.
Classification of Research Design Types.
Table 1.
Main Results and Study Characteristics.
| Authors | Research Design | Sample | Outcomes Measured | Main Findings |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Agnoli et al., 2022 | RCT | 448 children | •Creative Potential •Emotional Intelligence •Academic Performance |
•Educational intervention aimed at increasing the cognitive and metacognitive parts of children’s creativity could be more beneficial for children characterized by low levels of EI •The analyzes showed, indeed, that the training had positive effects on the ability to create original content in children with low and medium levels of EI |
| Alam et al., 2021 | RCT | 387 students | •Perceived Study Stress •Burnout •Performance of Students |
• E-learning and emotional intelligence (EI) have a significant influence on perceived study stress, burnout, and performance of Pakistani students. • Emotion regulation theory can be applied to understand the effects of e-learning and EI on students. • EI has a significant impact on the psychological pressure of a student. |
| Amirian et al., 2020 | RCT | 48 students | •Academic Achievement •Emotion Regulation •Cognitive Abilities •Cognitive rehabilitation |
• Cognitive rehabilitation is effective in improving academic achievement in students with PTSD (P<0.01). • Emotion regulation can moderate the effect of cognitive rehabilitation on academic achievement (P<0.05). • Cognitive rehabilitation can strengthen cognitive abilities and components related to executive functions, leading to improved educational performance and academic achievement in students with PTSD. |
| Bakadorova & Raufelder, 2017 | Longitudinal | 1088 students & 845 students | •Students’ Perception Of Peers As Positive Motivators •Behavioral School Engagement •Emotional School Engagement •Students’ School Self Concept |
• There is a positive association between adolescents’ school self-concept and engagement. • Students’ perception of peers as positive motivators at the beginning of 8th grade positively predicts their behavioral school engagement at the end of 9th grade. • Behavioral school engagement at T1 functions as a predictor of a student’s school self-concept at T2. |
| Camacho-Morles et al., 2021 | Review, Meta-Analysis | 68, 31,868, 11,153, 1,418, 28,410, children/students | •Academic Performance •Enjoyment of Learning •Emotions •Self-regulation •Cognition |
• There is a positive relation between enjoyment of learning and academic performance (ρ = .27), whereas the relations were negative for both anger (ρ = − .35) and boredom (ρ = − .25). • Relations of activity emotions with academic performance are stronger when students are in secondary school compared with both primary school and college, and when the emotions are measured by the Achievement Emotions Questionnaires – Mathematics (AEQ-M). • Achievement emotions are linked to motivational, self-regulatory, and cognitive processes that are crucial for academic success. |
| Chen and Cheng, 2023 | RCT | 231 students | •Self-Efficacy •Emotional Intelligence •Self-Esteem |
•Emotional intelligence appears to positively predict creativity self-efficacy and it seems that this is also influenced by self-esteem. •Gender seems to have an influential role mainly in self-esteem and positively affects boys and not girls |
| Cortés Pascual et al., 2019 | Review, Meta-Analysis | 7,947 children | •Academic Performance •Language Performance •Mathematics Performance |
• A meta-analysis of 21 samples (n = 7,947) demonstrated a moderately significant weighted effect size (r = 0.365) between executive functions and academic performance in primary education (6–12 years). • Working memory had the highest presence (k = 14, n = 3,740) and predictive weight for performance, with an effect size of r = 0.370 for random effects, with a moderate level of significance. • Gender resulted in a value of R2 = 0.49; the age variable was not significant. |
| Costa & Faria, 2023 | Longitudinal | 222 students | •Implicit Theories of Emotional Intelligence •Emotional Intelligence •Emotions Towards School •Academic Achievement •Negative Emotions |
• Implicit theories of emotional intelligence (ITEI) are related to emotional intelligence (EI; ability and trait) in the following year. • ITEI is linked to students’ emotions towards school and academic achievement (Portuguese academic grade) at the end of secondary school. • Ability and trait EI mediate the link of entity ITEI and negative emotions and achievement. |
| Èlia et al., 2022 | RCT | 259 students | •Personality •Emotional Intelligence |
•There is correlation of b2 {big two personality factors} and b1{Big one personality factor} personality factors with emotional intelligence. •There is not much influence of the b5 {big 5 personality factors} factors on emotional intelligence, except for 2 that appeared to predict it and these were impulsiveness and neuroticism. |
| Forsblom et al., 2022 | Longitudinal | 1,716 students | •Perceived Competence In Math •Perceived Value Of Math •Math Emotions (Enjoyment, Anger, And Boredom) •Math Achievement (School Grades In Math) |
• Control-value appraisals influence the emotions, and the emotions influence achievement. • Enjoyment positively predicted subsequent math achievement, while anger and boredom negatively predicted achievement. • Achievement showed reciprocal positive predictive effects on subsequent perceived competence, value, and enjoyment, and negative effects on subsequent anger and boredom. |
| Frenzel et al., 2018 | Longitudinal | 69 teachers & 1,643 students | •Teachers’ Enjoyment •Students’ Enjoyment •Teachers’ Observations Of Students’ Engagement In Class •Students’ Perceptions Of Teachers’ Enthusiasm During Teaching |
• A reciprocal effects model of teacher and student enjoyment was proposed and tested, which suggests that there are positive reciprocal links between teachers’ and students’ enjoyment. • The model was supported by 3-wave longitudinal data collected from 69 teachers and their 1,643 students. • Teacher and student enjoyment were found to be positively related to each other, and these links were mediated by teachers’ and students’ observations of each other’s classroom behaviors. |
| Garon-Carrier et al., 2016 | Longitudinal | 1,478 students | •Intrinsic Motivation Toward Mathematics •Achievement In Mathematics |
• Achievement predicted intrinsic motivation from Grades 1 to 2, and from Grades 2 to 4. • Intrinsic motivation did not predict achievement at any time. • This developmental pattern of association was gender invariant. |
| Geraci et al., 2023 | RCT | 65 early childhoods to secondary teachers | •Burnout •Work Engagement •Academic Performance •Self-Efficacy •Emotional Intelligence |
•Teachers reported feeling more burnout and lower self-esteem because of distance learning •The negative effects of COVID-19 differed according to levels of emotional intelligence •The higher emotional intelligence teachers have, the better they can deal with these negative effects |
| González et al., 2022 | RCT | 1,104 students | •Emotional Intelligence •School Climate |
•The dimension of emotional restoration, emotional clarity and emotional attention were the highest. Levels of emotional intelligence and level of school climate were higher in Spanish students •Girls showed higher scores compared to boys on emotional attention. There was a correlation between school climate and emotional intelligence. gender and country are unrelated to the relationship between school climate and dimensions of emotional intelligence |
| González-Alonso et al., 2020 | Longitudinal | 55 students | •Level Of Conflict •Perceptions About Bullying •Behaviour Of Students Based On Their Level Of Coexistence With The Group Of Classmates |
• The ICCC programme was effective in reducing levels of conflict and improving perceptions of bullying among Secondary Education students. • There were no differences between the control and experimental groups in terms of gender. • The programme should be implemented over a longer period of time in order to improve school coexistence and social skills of students from the early stages of education. |
| Gustavsen, 2017 | Longitudinal | 2,266 teachers | •Teacher Rated Academic Achievement In Norwegian •Teacher Rated Academic Achievement In Mathematics •Teacher Rated Academic Achievement In English |
• Teacher-rated social skills at T1 had a significant influence on boys’ and girls’ academic achievement two years later, but the fixed effect varied by subject. • Social skills seemed to explain the variance in mathematics and Norwegian but not English, when controlling for previous academic achievement. • There were no gender differences in the influence of social skills on academic achievement. |
| Hong et al., 2020 | Longitudinal | 789 students/teachers | •Behavioural Engagement •Cognitive Engagement •Emotional Engagement |
• Behavioural engagement stably predicted cognitive and emotional engagement over time. • The prediction of cognitive engagement on emotional engagement was not consistent from T1 to T2 and from T2 to T3. • Emotional engagement significantly predicted behavioural and cognitive engagement only from T2 to T3. |
| Joulaei et al., 2022 | RCT | 191 students | •Resilience •Emotional Intelligence |
•The practice of resilience positively affects the development of emotional intelligence, especially in boys, since mainly in them a significant statistical difference is observed in emotional intelligence performances concerning, for example, problem solving, happiness, impulse control, self-awareness, optimism, self-concentration and more generally emotional intelligence at the level of the intervention. |
| Jung et al., 2023 | RCT | 115 school-aged children (8-9 years old) and their parents | •Shyness •Emotional Intelligence •Social Skills |
•Emotional intelligence moderates the relationship between shyness and internalizing behaviors. •Emotional intelligence may help avoid internalizing behaviors for some shy children in middle childhood |
| Kumar & Tankha, 2023 | RCT | 342 students | •Emotional Intelligence •Personality |
•The Big Five factors, Neuroticism, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Receptiveness, and Openness, served as predictors of Global Trait Emotional Intelligence |
| Kwon et al., 2018 | Longitudinal | 199 children | •Negative Emotionality •Emotion Regulation •Achievement •Academic Engagement |
• Cross-lagged path analyses indicated significant directional effects from negative emotionality and emotion regulation to achievement, but not vice versa. • The link from negative emotionality and emotion regulation to achievement was mediated through academic engagement. • Promoting children’s academic skills might have a broader positive impact on children’s emotional development. |
| Lang, 2018 | RCT | 40 students | •Regulated Negative Emotion •Perceived Empathy |
• A 5-week emotional intelligence training program did not result in a meaningful improvement in regulated negative emotion dimensions and perceived empathy when post training changes were compared between both groups. • 80% of people’s success relates to skills that are in some way related to emotional intelligence. • An appropriate control group plays an important role in studies evaluating interventions to survey emotional intelligence on the emotion regulation of bullying students. |
| Lei & Cui, 2016 | Meta-Analysis | 17,548 students | •Academic Achievement •Emotional Regulation |
• There was a positive correlation between positive high-arousal (PHA) and positive low-arousal (PLA) emotions and academic achievement (r PHA = .312, r PLA = .376). • There was a negative correlation between negative high-arousal (NHA) and negative low-arousal (NLA) emotions and academic achievement (r NHA = -.179, r NLA = -.371). • The effects of academic emotions on academic achievement were moderated by regional location, age, achievement domain match, and gender. |
| Lei et al., 2018 | Meta-Analysis | 196,473 students | •Overall Student Engagement •Behavioral Engagement •Emotional Engagement •Cognitive Engagement •Academic Achievement |
• There was a moderately strong and positive correlation between overall student engagement and academic achievement. • An analysis of the domains of behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement showed that almost all had a positive correlation with students’ academic achievement. • The relationship between student engagement and academic achievement was influenced by the method of reporting engagement, cultural value, and gender. |
| Li & Xu, 2019 | RCT | 1,718 students | •Foreign Language Enjoyment (Fle) •Foreign Language Anxiety (Fla) •Emotional Intelligence (Ei) |
• A correlational study showed medium correlations between students’ EI, FLE, and FLA. • An intervention study showed that a PP-based EI intervention was effective in improving EI, boosting more positive classroom emotions and alleviating negative classroom emotions. • The findings have theoretical and practical implications for L2 education. |
| Li et al., 2022 | Longitudinal | 271 children | •Child Psychological Abuse And Neglect (Cpan) •Children’S Learning Engagement •Family Socioeconomic Status (Family Ses) •Academic Achievement |
• CPAN at T1 was associated with academic achievement at T2, mediated by learning engagement at T1. • Family SES at T1 moderated the relationship between learning engagement at T1 and academic achievement at T2. • Learning engagement is a critical factor in children’s academic achievement, especially for those from low SES families. |
| Lichtenfeld et al., 2023 | Longitudinal | 670 students | •Enjoyment •Boredom •Anxiety •Students’ Emotions During Learning •Students’ Emotions When Taking Test and Exams In Math •School Grades In Math •Math Achievement Test Scores |
• Enjoyment decreased, whereas boredom and anxiety remained relatively stable across second to fourth grade. • Enjoyment positively predicted subsequent achievement, and achievement positively predicted subsequent enjoyment. • Boredom and anxiety negatively predicted subsequent achievement, and achievement negatively predicted subsequent boredom and anxiety. |
| Lim, 2023 | RCT | 48 children | •Emotional Intelligence •Social Skills •Self-awareness |
•The experimental group showed a statistically significant improvement in some areas of emotional intelligence, specifically in self-awareness and relationship management, compared to the control group. |
| Linden et al., 2017 | Meta-Analysis | 36,268 students | •General Factor Of Personality (Gfp) •Emotional Intelligence •Trait Ei •Ability Ei |
• There is a large overlap between the GFP and trait EI (r ≈ .85). • There is a positive, but more moderate, correlation with ability EI (r ≈ .28). • The GFP is very similar, perhaps even synonymous, to trait EI. |
| Lozano-Blasco et al., 2022 | Meta-Analysis, Systematic Review | 42,061 students | •Academic Performance | • Intelligence is a significant, positive and moderate predictor of academic performance (r = 0.367; p < 0.001). • The predictive capacity of intelligence on school performance is influenced by the type of intelligence and the country of origin. • Age and gender do not have a significant influence on the predictive capacity of intelligence on academic performance. |
| Maamari & Majdalani, 2019 | RCT | 283 students & 10 teachers | •Student Satisfaction •Emotional Intelligence (Ei) Of Students |
• The primary factor that will increase the emotional intelligence (EI) of students is not the EI of the teacher, but the class interactions. • Universities should hire emotionally intelligent teachers to increase the EI of their students. • Increasing the EI of students will improve the business situation of universities, as students will be more likely to remain and encourage others to do so. |
| Maamari & Salloum, 2023 | RCT | 410 students & 32 teachers | •Teaching Effectiveness | • High emotional intelligence is important for teaching effectiveness at universities. • Personality traits of the teacher moderate the positive relationship between emotional intelligence and teaching effectiveness. • Universities should hire emotionally intelligent teachers and conduct emotional intelligence workshops for existing teachers in order to improve their EI skills. |
| MacCann et al., 2020 | Meta-Analysis | 42,529 students | •Academic Performance •Emotional Intelligence |
• EI is associated with academic performance (ρ = .20). • Ability EI is a stronger predictor of academic performance than self-rated or mixed EI (ρ = .24, .12, and .19 respectively). • EI is the third most important predictor for academic performance, after intelligence and conscientiousness. |
| Mahmud, 2020 | RCT | 60 students | •Empathy •Emotional Management |
• The intervention had a significant positive impact on empathy. • Focus group findings highlighted ways the intervention helped pupils to address negative emotions, cope and manage difficult problems. • The paper highlights a context-specific approach to support programmes, based on the inclusion of an exploratory phase when designing such interventions. |
| Manwaring et al., 2017 | Review, Longitudinal | 68 students | •Academic Achievement •Retention •Graduation •Behavioral Engagement •Emotional Engagement •Cognitive Engagement •Student Control Appraisals •Value Appraisals •Achievement Goals •Classroom Environment |
• Emotional and cognitive engagement are highly correlated, but emotional engagement does not necessarily lead to higher levels of cognitive engagement. • Course design and student perception variables have a greater influence on engagement than individual student characteristics. • Student multitasking has a strong negative influence on engagement, while students’ perceptions of the importance of the activity has a strong positive influence on both cognitive and emotional engagement. |
| Martin, & Collie, 2019 | Longitudinal | 2,079 students/teachers | •Academic Participation •Enjoyment •Aspirations |
• There is a significant linear effect, with an increase in the number of positive relationships (relative to negative relationships) with teachers predicting greater school engagement. • When the relational balance became predominantly negative, students’ engagement was lower, but did not decline with an increasing number of negative teacher–student relationships. • When the relational balance became predominantly positive, students’ engagement was higher and became increasingly more so as the number of positive teacher–student relationships outnumbered the negative. |
| Mendo-Lázaro et al., 2018 | RCT | 346 students | •Social Skills Necessary For Teamwork •Behavior Patterns In Social Skills Concerning Self Assertion •Behavior Patterns In Social Skills Concerning Reception And Imparting Of Information In Teamwork Situations |
• Cooperative learning in university classrooms is effective in developing the social skills necessary for teamwork. • The number of students in a group, the basic social skills, and the academic level of the students are relevant factors related with efficacy. • Continuity over time in the use of the cooperative methodology is what marks the greatest differences in the development of the social skills necessary for teamwork. |
| Muhtadi et al., 2022 | Meta-Analysis | 2474 students | •Emotional Intelligence •Mathematics Achievement |
• A meta-analysis of 36 primary studies with a sample of 2474 found that emotional intelligence has a large effect on mathematics achievement in Indonesia (M = 0.65). • Analysis of moderator variables found that there was a significant difference in the education level group (Qb = 62.94; p<0.05). • There was no difference in the publication type group (Qb = 0.64; p>0.05) and year of publication group (Qb = 4.16; p>0.05). |
| Nasti et al., 2023 | RCT | 199 children | •Personality •Bullying •Emotional Intelligence •Empathy |
•Emotional intelligence mediates the relationship between the Big Five personality traits and bullying, reducing the risk of engaging in bullying acts |
| Nasvytienė & Lazdauskas, 2021 | Meta-Analysis | 79,913 students | •Academic Achievement •Emotional Regulation |
• Positive association between effortful control (EC) and academic performance. • Inverse relationship between negative affectivity (NA) and academic performance. • No apparent trend of surgency (SU) in the relationship between temperament and academic achievement. |
| Olderbak et al., 2018 | Meta-Analysis | 15,333 students | •4 Branch Model Of Ability Emotional Intelligence •Fluid Intelligence (Gf) •Crystallized Intelligence (Gc) •Understanding Emotions •Facilitating Thought Using Emotion •Managing Emotions •Perceiving Emotion |
• The strength of relations between the four-branch model of ability emotional intelligence (EI) and fluid (Gf) and crystallized intelligence (Gc) were equivalent. • Understanding emotions had the strongest relation with Gf/Gc combined (ρ = .43). • Relations between perceiving emotion and Gf/Gc were moderated by stimulus type. |
| Pekrun et al., 2017 | Longitudinal | 3,425 students | •Positive Emotions (Enjoyment, Pride) •Negative Emotions (Anger, Anxiety, Shame, Boredom, Hopelessness) •Achievement (Math End of The Year Grades And Test Scores) |
• Positive emotions (enjoyment, pride) positively predicted subsequent achievement in math. • Achievement positively predicted positive emotions. • Negative emotions (anger, anxiety, shame, boredom, hopelessness) negatively predicted achievement. |
| Pozo-Rico et al., 2023 | RCT | 141 teachers | •Teacher Well Being •Resilience •Emotional Competence •Self Efficacy |
• The 14-week teacher training program had a positive impact on teacher well-being, resilience, emotional competence, and self-efficacy. • The program was linked to the introduction of innovative and effective teacher methodologies. • The training contributes to teacher empowerment and provides knowledge, strategies, and resources for greater innovation and quality in the classroom. |
| Quílez-Robres et al., 2021 | Meta-Analysis | 15,777 children | •Academic Achievement •Emotional Factors •Social Factors •Motivational Factors |
• A moderate positive effect size was found for motivational and social factors, and a small positive effect size was found for emotional factors on academic achievement in children aged 6–12 years. • Age and geographical area had a moderating effect on the relationship between motivational, emotional, and social factors and academic achievement. • These results highlight the importance of motivational and social factors regarding academic achievement, and the need to design school plans that address the correct development of these variables. |
| Quiroz, 2020 | RCT | 382 students | •Emotional Intelligence | • A pre-experimental study was conducted with 382 university students from different areas of study. • The BarOn’s ICE emotional intelligence inventory was used to measure pre and post results. • Significant differences were found between the pre and post results after applying the PRODPE program, indicating that the program was successful in developing emotional skills. |
| Salmela-Aro et al., 2021 | Review, Longitudinal | 104,304 students | •Antecedents Of Engagement •Outcomes Of Engagement (Not As Commonly Studied) |
• 104 studies of 104,304 adolescents published during 2010-2020 were included in the review. • Most studies focused on antecedents of engagement rather than outcomes of engagement. • Most studies focused on behavioral engagement, followed by emotional and cognitive engagement. |
| Sánchez-Álvarez et al., 2016 | Meta-Analysis | 8520 students/teachers | •Emotional Intelligence •Subjective Well Being (Swb) •Cognitive Component Of Swb •Affective Component Of Swb |
• There is a positive significant relationship between EI and SWB (ȓ = 0.32). • The relationship between EI and SWB is higher in studies using self-report mixed EI instruments (ȓ = 0.38). • There is a larger association between EI and the cognitive component of SWB (ȓ = 0.35) than with the affective component (ȓ = 0.29). |
| Sánchez-Álvarez et al., 2020 | Meta-Analysis | 19,861 students | •Emotional Intelligence •Academic Performance |
• A significant effect of EI on AP was found (Z¯ = 0.26). • Average association between EI and AP was higher in studies measured EI as ability (Z¯ = 0.31) than in studies measured EI as self-report (Z¯ = 0.24) or self-report mixed EI (Z¯ = 0.26). • This meta-analysis provides information on the specific role of EI as a function of used measures. |
| Sofeia, 2023 | RCT | 265 teachers/students | •Self-Efficacy •Emotional Value Expectations •Deep Learning Behavior |
• Perceived teacher-student and peer interactions significantly impact students’ self-efficacy and emotional value expectations. • Self-efficacy and emotional value expectations mediate the relationship between perceived teacher-student and peer interactions and deep learning. • Micro ecosystems can influence individuals’ intrinsic belief values, which can, in turn, affect their behaviour. |
| Tang & He, 2023 | Meta-Analysis | 1,205 students | •Anxiety •Academic Performance |
• A negative correlation was found between university students’ anxiety and academic performance during the COVID-19 pandemic (r = −0.211). • Subgroup analysis found no significant regulatory effects for the year of publication, country development level, student type, or anxiety type. • Negative emotions induced by the pandemic are the most significant factor linking anxiety to poor academic performance. |
| Tartakovsky & Vorobiova, 2022 | RCT | 601 students | •Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (Ptsd) Symptoms •Cultural Identities •Social Support |
• Exposure to terror attacks from the Gaza Strip was associated with increased PTSD symptoms among immigrants from the Former Soviet Union to Israel. • Social support from both the immigrant group and the larger society buffered the effect of exposure to terror attacks on PTSD symptoms. • Identification with the group and adherence to the group’s cultural practices predicted social support received from the group. |
| Taylor et al., 2017 | Meta-Analysis | 97,406 students | •Social Emotional Skills •Attitudes •Indicators Of Well Being •Graduation •Safe Sexual Behaviors |
• School-based SEL interventions have a positive effect on youth development, including social-emotional skills, attitudes, and indicators of well-being. • Benefits were similar regardless of students’ race, socioeconomic background, or school location. • Postintervention social-emotional skill development was the strongest predictor of well-being at follow-up. |
| Thornberg et al., 2020 | Longitudinal | 234 students & 120 teachers | •Affective Engagement •Behavioural Engagement |
• Teacher-student relationship quality was found to predict student engagement one year later, even when controlling for sex, age, and prior student engagement. • The longitudinal association between teacher-student relationship quality and student engagement was unidirectional. • Two significant categories emerged from the qualitative findings: ‘teacher being’ and ‘teacher doing’. |
| Ulmanen et al., 2016 | Longitudinal | 170 students | •Students’ Emotional Engagement •Emotional Engagement In Teacher Student Relationships •Emotional Engagement In Peer Relations •Perceived Peer Group Relations Over Time |
• Emotional engagement remained stable over time. • Teacher-student relationships associated with emotional engagement in peer relations. • The association between teacher-student and peer-group relations was stronger among the secondary school students than among the primary school students. |
| Walker et al., 2022 | Meta-Analysis | 6914 students | •Attachment Styles •Emotional Intelligence (Ei) |
• Lower anxious and avoidant attachment styles are significantly associated with both EI rating-scales and ability EI. • Secure attachment is significantly associated with EI rating-scales only. • EI type significantly moderated the EI/avoidant attachment association only. |
| Wang & Liu, 2023 | Review, Meta-Analysis | 6,571 students | •Actual Language Performance •Perceived Language Proficiency |
• A moderate-to-large effect size was found between EI and L2 achievement (r = .43). • The effect was stronger for female, collectivistic culture, and final grades as language measures. • The effect was not influenced by educational level, major, specificity of L2 achievement, skills of language learning or publication year. |
| Wang & Wang, 2022 | Review, Meta-Analysis | 5,665 teachers | •Emotional Intelligence •Self Efficacy •Burnout |
• Results of the meta-analysis showed moderate to large meta-correlations between emotional intelligence (EI), self-efficacy (SE), and burnout among foreign language teachers. • EI and SE were positively correlated with each other, but negatively correlated with burnout. • Moderation analysis provided exploratory insights into the effects. |
| Wang et al., 2016 | Longitudinal | 495 teachers | •Teachers’ Achievement Goals •Perceived Classroom Goal Structures •Teaching Related Emotions |
• Teachers’ achievement goals predict their perceived classroom goal structures. • Classroom goal structures predict teachers’ teaching-related emotions. • Teachers’ achievement goals directly predict their teaching-related emotions, as well as indirectly through the mediating effects of classroom goal structures. |
| Wang et al., 2021 | Longitudinal | 1,086 teachers | •Teachers’ Emotional Labor •Psychological Well Being •Perceived Student Engagement |
• The present study found that teachers’ well-being and perceived student engagement directly predict their use of emotional labour strategies, rather than vice versa. • Structural equation modelling analyses showed that emotional labour does not predict well-being outcomes (e.g., job satisfaction, burnout). • The predictive relationship between teachers’ emotional labour and student engagement has not been empirically investigated. |
| Xu et al., 2019 | Meta-Analysis | 18,130 teachers | •Emotional Intelligence •Creativity |
• A moderate correlation (r = 0.32) between emotional intelligence and creativity was found. • The correlation was modulated by the type of creativity/EI measure and sample characteristics. • The link was stronger in males, employees, and East Asian samples compared to other groups. |
| Xu et al., 2020 | Meta-Analysis | 29,922 teachers | •Emotional Intelligence •Subjective Well Being (Swb) •Swb Component (Cognitive Or Affective) |
• A moderately positive correlation (r = .32) was found between EI and SWB in Chinese culture. • The strength of the correlation was moderated by EI stream, SWB component, participant’s age, and participant’s employment status. • EI was more strongly associated with the cognitive components of SWB than with the affective component of SWB. |
| Zee & Koomen, 2019 | Longitudinal | 472 students & 63 teachers | •Emotional Engagement •Behavioral Engagement |
• Teachers’ student-specific self-efficacy predicted positive changes in emotional engagement. • Closeness predicted positive changes in behavioral and emotional engagement. • The association of closeness with the engagement measures was strongest for students in 6th grade. |
| Zhen et al., 2020 | Longitudinal | 532, 450, and 415 students | •Cognitive Engagement •Emotional Engagement •Behavioural Engagement |
• Four distinct academic engagement trajectories were identified: persistent, climbing, descending, and struggling. • Academic self-efficacy levels showed a consistent trend with the engagement trajectory, while the implicit theory of intelligence showed the reverse trend. • Attention should be given to students from the descending and struggling groups. |
| Zhoc et al., 2020 | Longitudinal | 560 students | •Student Engagement •Students’ Gpa •Generic Learning Outcomes •Students’ Satisfaction With The University Experience |
• Emotional intelligence (EI) positively predicted all dimensions of student engagement. • EI and engagement jointly predicted key learning outcomes in higher education, including the students’ GPA, generic outcomes, and satisfaction with the university experience. • The model explained 16%, 44%, and 38% of the students’ GPA, generic learning outcomes, and satisfaction with their university experience, respectively. |
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