1. Introduction

2. Hunger is Everywhere

3. Prevalence and Severity of Hunger and Food Insecurity Worldwide

3.1. Hunger and Food Security in Asia and Pacific

According to 2023 GHI data, China was one of the top twenty countries with scores below 5 and held a shared first position out of 125 ranked countries included in the 2023 GHI [1]. Subsequently, China secured the top ranking in the Asia and Pacific region, despite having a GHI score of 7.1 in 2008, placing it among the countries with low hunger levels (GHI scores ≤ 9.9). From Table 1a, Pakistan and India had the highest GHI scores of 26.6 and 28.7 respectively in 2023, signifying the least improved GHI scores (-4.5 & -6.8 respectively) in Asia and Pacific region. When we compare the 2023 GHI scores with scores in 2008, Tajikistan (ranked 62/125) was recognised as the most improved country in terms of hunger reduction (-16.2). The region did not record any countries that were further plunged into higher hunger level in 2023 (a situation where the 2023 GHI scores > 2008 GHI scores) [1]. Although, many countries in this region are in the moderate hunger level in 2023 GHI, however, country like Pakistan witnessed heavy flooding and the arrival of El Nino in 2023 could potentially reduce grain production, resulting in higher prices and reduced availability and accessibility of essential staples in the coming future [19].

It is worth noting that the lower the GHI scores, the better while higher GHI scores indicate deteriorating hunger level is such countries. The GHI scores are categorised as (i) low (if GHI score ≤ 9.9), (ii) moderate (if GHI score 10.0-19.9), (iii) serious (if GHI score 20.0-34.9), (iv) alarming (if the GHI score 35.0-49.9) and (v) extremely alarming (if GHI score ≥ 50.0) [1].

However, in terms of food security environment, the underlying data of most recent 2022 GFSI was employed to explore the current state of food security of each country and region. It is worth noting that the higher the GFSI scores, the better the food security status, while the lower the GFSI scores, the worse the food security status of the 113 countries captured in the 2022 GFSI. Table 1b revealed the food security environment of Asia and Pacific region where the GFSI scores are categorised as (i) very good (if scores 80+), (ii) Good (if scores 70.0-79.9), (iii) moderate (if score 55.0-69.9), (iv) weak (if scores 40.0-54.9) and (v) very weak (if score 0-39.9) [18]. The score category of GHI and GFSI are in opposite direction. Higher GHI means great concerns for hunger prevalence and severity while higher GFSI scores symbolises better food security environment [1,18].

Japan (ranked 6/113) had the best food security environment in the 2022 GFSI (79.5) among countries in the region. This was followed by New Zealand and Australia with GFSI scores 77.8 and 75.4 respectively. Vietnam recorded the most improved score, moving from 54.5 in 2008 to 67.9 in 2022 (+13.4), and also recorded 17 places improvement in rank. In terms of change of score (2022 compared with 2012), no countries in this region recorded a reduction in the GFSI scores. Bangladesh, Lao and Pakistan recorded the three lowest scores in the region (scores 54.0, 53.1, and 52.2 respectively) [18]. Based on the current GHI and GFSI scores in the Asia and Pacific region, it indicated that the region had performed fairly well in their efforts to reducing the prevalence of hunger and improve food security in the specified periods [1,18].

Table 1. a. GHI scores of Asia and Pacific.

Table 1. a. GHI scores of Asia and Pacific.

Global Hunger Index (Asia and Pacific)
Rank/125	Country	Score (2008)	Score (2023)	∆
=1	China	7.1	<5	-
21	Uzbekistan	14.9	5.0	-9.9
24	Kazakhstan	11.0	5.5	-5.5
34	Azerbaijan	15.0	6.9	-8.1
54	Vietnam	20.1	11.4	-8.7
=55	Thailand	12.2	10.4	-1.8
56	Malaysia	13.7	12.5	-1.2
60	Sri Lanka	17.6	13.3	-4.3
62	Tajikistan	29.9	13.7	-16.2
66	Philippines	19.1	14.8	-4.3
=67	Cambodia	25.6	14.9	-10.7
69	Nepal	29.0	15.0	-14
72	Myanmar	29.7	16.1	-13.6
74	Laos	30.4	16.3	-14.1
77	Indonesia	28.5	17.6	-10.9
81	Bangladesh	30.6	19.0	-11.6
102	Pakistan	31.1	26.6	-4.5
111	India	35.5	28.7	-6.8

Source: Authors’ compilation using underlying data from 2023 GHI scores [1]. GHI severity of hunger scale/colour key.

Low: GHI ≤ 9.9	Moderate: GHI 10.0-19.9	Serious: GHI 20.0-34.9	Alarming: GHI 35.0-49.9	Extremely alarming: GHI ≥ 50

Scores are normalized 0-100. “=” denotes tie in rank. ∆ = change in score, 2023 compared with 2008.

Table 1. b. GFSI scores of Asia and Pacific.

Table 1. b. GFSI scores of Asia and Pacific.

Food Security Environment (Asia and Pacific)
Rank/113	Country	Score (2012)	Score (2022)	∆
6 ▲1	Japan	75.4	79.5	+4.1
= 14 ▲2	New Zealand	72.6	77.8	+5.2
22 ↔	Australia	70.8	75.4	+4.6
=25 ▲24	China	60.5	74.2	+3.7
28 ▼3	Singapore	68.4	73.1	+4.7
32 ▲11	Kazakhstan	62.7	72.1	+9.4
39 ↔	South Korea	63.1	70.2	+7.1
=41 ▼9	Malaysia	64.2	69.9	+5.7
46 ▲17	Vietnam	54.5	67.9	+13.4
63 ▼1	Indonesia	55.4	60.2	+4.8
=64 ▼3	Thailand	55.5	60.1	+4.6
66 ▼9	Azerbaijan	56.9	59.8	+2.9
67 ▲5	Philippines	52.1	59.3	+7.2
=68 ▼1	India	53.8	58.9	+5.1
72 ▲6	Myanmar	49.4	57.6	+8.2
73 ▲2	Uzbekistan	50.4	57.5	+7.1
74 ▲10	Nepal	45.8	56.9	+11.1
75 ▲5	Tajikistan	47.1	56.7	+9.6
78 ▲11	Cambodia	44.3	55.7	+11.4
79 ▼9	Sri Lanka	52.9	55.2	+2.3
80 ↔	Bangladesh	47.1	54.0	+6.9
81 ▲9	Laos	44.1	53.1	+9.0
84 ▲10	Pakistan	43.5	52.2	+8.7

Source: Authors’ compilation using underlying data from 2022. GFSI scores [18].

GFSI Colour key:

Very Good	Good	Moderate	Weak	Very weak
Score 80+	Score 70-79.9	Score 55-69.9	Score 40-54.9	Score 0-39.9

Scores are normalized 0-100, where 100 = best conditions. “=” denotes tie in rank. ∆ = change in score, 2022 compared with 2012. ▲ = Rank improved ▼= Rank deteriorated ↔ = No change in rank. Sorted by food security environment in 2022, best to worst.

3.2. Hunger and Food Security in Europe

According to the 2023 GHI, many of the countries in the European region were among the group of countries (1-20) co-ranked 1st while having their GHI scores below 5. Table 2a presented the GHI scores of European region, indicating that five countries in this region namely, Hungary, Slovakia, Romania, Belarus, and Serbia were jointly ranked 1st. This showed a very low hunger level in the region. However, it is important to observe that most of these countries (jointly ranked first) did not attain the ranking in 2008 (except Belarus) as shown in Table 2a but all of them were in the category of low hunger level (GHI score ≤ 9.9) [1]. Many countries in this region (especially Northern, Southern, and Western Europe) are not captured in the 2023 GHI due to “very low” benchmark for either one or both of the PoU and child mortality data from year 2000, which are pivotal in the inclusion of countries in the index. Europe recorded the region with the lowest 2023 GHI score but it is also reported that in recent years, rising domestic food prices have diminished the affordability of food across Europe [20].

Table 2. a. GHI scores of Europe.

Table 2. a. GHI scores of Europe.

Global Hunger Index (Europe)
Rank/125	Country	Score (2008)	Score (2023)	∆
=1	Hungary	5.6	<5	-
=1	Slovakia	5.7	<5	-
=1	Romania	5.8	<5	-
=1	Belarus	<5	<5	-
=1	Serbia	5.8	<5	-
23	Bulgaria	7.7	7.3	-0.4
26	Russia	5.8	5.8	-
44	Ukraine	7.1	8.2	+1.1

Source: Authors’ compilation using underlying data from 2023 GHI scores [1].

Out of the 113 countries captured in the 2022 GFSI, twenty-six European countries were included in the index (Table 2b). While the first five countries (Finland (83.7), Ireland (81.7), Norway (80.5), France (80.5), and Netherlands (80.1)) attained the status of “very good” with score 80+), indicating a robust and improved food security environment (Economist Impact, 2022). Finland had the best GFSI score (83.7) in the European region and among all the 113 countries captured in 2022 GFSI [18].

About 62 percent of countries in this region recorded “good” GFSI score (70.0-79.9) while Bulgaria was the country with most improved score (+9.5). When comparing scores in 2022 and 2012, only Norway had its score slightly reduced (-0.4), while other countries recorded a significant improvement in their food security environment (+0.8 to +9.5). United Kingdom recorded the most improved rank (11 places up) while Spain recorded the most deteriorated rank (12 places down) in the European region in the 2022 GFSI [18]. Even with the region’s “very good” and “good” scores, FAO et al. (2023) reported that 10.5% population in Eastern Europe encountered moderate to severe FI in 2020-2022. Ukraine recorded the lowest score (57.9) in the region in 2022, while the reason for this may not be far-fetched. However, the on-going Russia-Ukraine conflict has visibly impacted food security within Ukraine, posing challenges to the livelihoods of food producers due to lowered production levels and heightened costs associated with inputs, storage, and logistics [3,20].

Table 2. b. GFSI scores of Europe.

Table 2. b. GFSI scores of Europe.

Food Security Environment (Europe)
Rank/113	Country	Score (2012)	Score (2022)	∆
1 ▲1	Finland	78.4	83.7	+5.3
2 ▲1	Ireland	76.9	81.7	+4.8
3 ▼2	Norway	80.9	80.5	-0.4
4 ↔	France	76.8	80.5	+3.4
5 ▲7	Netherlands	73.4	80.1	+6.7
=7 ▼1	Sweden	75.7	79.1	+3.4
9 ▲11	United Kingdom	71.6	78.8	+7.2
10 ▼1	Portugal	74.8	78.7	+3.9
11 ▲4	Switzerland	73.2	78.2	+5.0
12 ▼2	Austria	74.4	78.1	+3.7
=14 ▼2	Denmark	73.4	77.8	+4.4
16 ▲1	Czech Republic	72.3	77.7	+5.4
17 ▼6	Belgium	73.6	77.5	+3.9
19 ▼7	Germany	73.4	77.0	+3.6
20 ▼12	Spain	74.9	75.7	+0.8
21 ▲3	Poland	68.5	75.5	+7.0
27 ▼6	Italy	71.5	74.0	+2.5
29 ▲6	Bulgaria	63.5	73.0	+9.5
31 ▼4	Greece	67.5	72.2	+4.7
34 ▼5	Hungary	66.1	71.4	+5.3
36 ▼4	Slovakia	64.2	71.1	+6.9
=43 ▼2	Russia	63.0	69.1	+6.1
45 ▼4	Romania	63.0	68.8	+5.8
55 ▼5	Belarus	60.2	64.5	+4.3
61 ▲6	Serbia	53.4	61.4	+8.0
71 ▼11	Ukraine	55.8	57.9	+2.1

Source: Authors’ compilation using underlying data from 2022, GFSI scores [18].

3.3. Hunger and Food Security in Latin America

Out of 19 Latin American countries captured in this study in the 2023 GHI, 12 (led by Chile and Uruguay) fell in the category “low hunger level (GHI score ≤ 9.9), and six of these countries (Chile, Uruguay, Costa Rica, Mexico, Argentina, and Brazil) maintained this hun-ger status since 2008 (see Table 3a). A mere 32% of the countries in within this region rec-orded a moderate level of hunger, indicating a predominantly low to moderate level of hunger in Latin America in the 2023 GHI [1]. However, Haiti was the only country in this region in the alarming hunger level (40.2) in 2008 score and fell to serious hunger level (31.1) in the 2023 GHI scores. Argentina (+0.9) and Venezuela (+8.5) recorded an increase in their 2023 GHI scores when compared with the 2008 scores. According to 2008 and 2023 GHI scores, Venezuela had the highest level of hunger severity (+8.5), while Haiti was the most improved country in reducing level of hunger (-9.1) in the region [1]. Since 2015, 9 Latin American countries (Trinidad and Tobago, Bolivia, Brazil, Argentina, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Paraguay, Haiti and Venezuela) have experienced a rise in hunger [3]. It was rereported in recent estimates that the expense of maintaining a healthy diet in Latin America and the Caribbean surpasses that of any other global regions. The devastating effects of COVID-19 and income inequality further aggravated hunger level in this region [3].

From the underlying data of 2022 GFSI, 19 Latin American countries were captured where Costa Rica recorded the best GFSI score of 77.4. Out of 19 countries, five (Costa Rica (77.4), Chile (74.2), Uruguay (71.8), Peru (70.8), and Panama (70.0)) were in the category of “good score (70.0-79.9) [18]. Comparing 2022 GFSI score with 2012 in this region, Bolivia recorded the most significant improvement (+12.2) while three countries (Colombia (-2.2), Venezuela (-4.9), and Haiti (-5.4)) experienced a decline in their respective GFSI scores, indicating a decline in the countries’ food security environment [18]. Out of the 113 countries captured, Haiti was ranked 112^th (also the lowest rank in the region) and was the only country with lowest GFSI score (38.5) and falling to the category of “very weak” (0-39.9) score [18]. Additionally, Bolivia had the most improved ranking (2012-2022), moving 19 upward while Colombia, Haiti, and Venezuela recorded the most deteriorated ranks, moving 19, 21 and 27 places downward respectively (see Table 3b). According to FAO and partners’ recent estimates, the number of severely food insecure people in Latin America rose from 32 million in 2015 to 70.8 million in 2022. While those experiencing moderate to severe FI jumped from 144 million in 2015 to 220.8 million in 2022 [3]. In Haiti, criminal violence and challenging economic circumstances persist in disrupting income-generating endeavours and contributing to elevated food prices [21,22]. The critical food deprivation experiences in Colombia and Venezuela require concerted efforts in curtailing rising inflation rates and reducing gross domestic product (GDP) growth. The persisting effects of El Nino, with reduced rainfall forecast are likely to have severe impact on food production in Venezuela [23,24,25].

Table 3. b. GFSI scores of Latin America.

Table 3. b. GFSI scores of Latin America.

Food Security Environment (Latin America)
Rank/113	Country	Score (2012)	Score (2022)	∆
18 ▲1	Costa Rica	71.7	77.4	+5.7
=25 ▲1	Chile	68.3	74.2	+5.9
33 ▲15	Uruguay	60.9	71.8	+10.9
37 ▲2	Peru	63.1	70.8	+7.7
40 ▲7	Panama	61.2	70.0	+8.8
=43 ▲3	Mexico	61.8	69.1	+7.3
48 ▲4	Ecuador	59.4	65.6	+6.2
51 ▼17	Brazil	63.8	65.1	+1.3
=52 ▲19	Bolivia	52.8	65.0	+12.2
=52 ▼1	Dominican Rep.	59.5	65.0	+5.5
54 ▼19	Argentina	63.5	64.8	+1.3
56 ▼3	El Salvador	58.8	64.2	+5.4
58 ↔	Guatemala	56.2	62.8	+6.6
60 ▲4	Honduras	54.1	61.5	+7.4
=64 ▼19	Colombia	62.3	60.1	-2.2
70 ▼5	Paraguay	54.0	58.6	+4.6
76 ↔	Nicaragua	50.3	56.6	+6.3
106 ▼27	Venezuela	47.5	42.6	-4.9
112 ▼21	Haiti	43.9	38.5	-5.4

Source: Authors’ compilation using underlying data from 2022. GFSI scores [18].

3.4. Hunger and Food Security in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA)

The only region expected to witness a significant rise in hunger (as indicated by the num-ber of undernourished individuals) is Africa, where approximately 300 million people may face hunger in 2030. Table 4a presented the GHI scores of SSA. According to the 2023 GHI data GHI, South Africa had the best score of 13.0, while four other countries (Ghana, 13.7; Senegal, 15.0; Cameroon, 18.6, and Botswana, 19.9) recorded less than 20.0 scores, indicat-ing moderate hunger levels [1]. None of the countries in the SSA region were classified in the low hunger level (GHI ≤ 9.9). Madagascar’s hunger status deepened based on the GHI scores from 2008 to 2023, with an increase of +4.4, and it remained the only country with the highest GHI score of 41.0, placing it in the alarming hunger level [1]. This categorisation was also shared with two other countries (Niger, 35.1; Congo Dem. Rep, 35.7). Nonethe-less, Angola achieved the most improved score (-17.0) between the 2008 and 2023 GHI scores, signalling a substantial advancement in the country’s efforts to reduce extreme hunger [1]. Most of the countries in this region recorded a significant reduction (from Guinea, -2.2 to Angola, -17.0) in their scores but it is important to note that many of them are still grappling in the serious to alarming hunger (GHI score 20.0-49.9) levels. The SSA recorded the highest level (21.7%) of undernourished individuals globally [26].

Additionally, SSA also recorded the highest child mortality rate of 7.4% globally. While the region’s child stunting rate of 31.5% was closer to that of South Asia of 31.4% [27,28].

Out of 113 countries captured in the 2022 GFSI edition, 28 SSA countries were included. From the 2023 GHI data, the SSA countries had 50% of the 10 most deteriorated GFSI score from 2012 to 2022 [18]. Table 4b revealed the GFSI score of SSA in 2012 and 2022, revealing the prevalence and severity of FI levels of the region. However, 8 countries (Burkina Faso and Tanzania (38.9), Benin (39.2), Ethiopia (38.7), Chad and Sudan (35.5), Congo Dem. Rep. (33.7), and Madagascar (39.4)) were found in the most deteriorated GFSI score (0-39.9) in 2012. It is important to observe that only South Africa recorded the best (highest) GFSI scores of 57.1 and 61.7 in 2012 and 2022 respectively. It is surprising to note that no country in SSA record GFSI score categorised as very good (score 80+) or good (score 70-79.9) between 2012 and 2022 [18]. Ninety-six percent (27/28) of the countries in this region fell in the cat-egory of weak GFSI score (40-54.9) in 2022. In addition, Burkina Faso recorded the most improved rank (18 places upward) and score (+10.7) in the region between 2012 and 2022. While four countries (Zambia (-1.8), Nigeria (-0.9), Burundi (-1.4), and Sierra Leone (-1.0)) had their GFSI score further deteriorated within the two periods. Zambia recorded the most deteriorated rank (16 places downward) while Sierra Leone recorded the lowest rank (112/113) in the region in 2022 GFSI (see Table 4b) [18]. The sub-Saharan Africa was the only region that performed below the global average of 62.2 in 2022 GFSI with 47.0 [5,18].

Recent estimates revealed that about one in every four individuals in Africa encountered FI in 2022. Moderate FI increased from 45.4% in 2015 to 60.9% in 2022, while severe FI rose from 17.2% in 2015 to 24% in 2022 [3]. Countries in SSA region like Congo Dem. Rep., Ethiopia, and Somalia are among hunger hotspots countries (others are Afghanistan, Haiti, Yemen, Pakistan, and Syria Arab Republic) of very high concern in 2023-2024 due to wors-ening critical circumstances [22].

Table 4. b. GFSI scores of sub-Saharan Africa.

Table 4. b. GFSI scores of sub-Saharan Africa.

Food Security Environment (sub-Saharan Africa)
Rank/113	Country	Score (2012)	Score (2022)	∆
59 ▼3	South Africa	57.1	61.7	+4.6
82 ▲13	Kenya	43.0	53.0	+10.0
83 ▼10	Ghana	50.5	52.6	+2.1
85 ▲3	Mali	44.5	51.9	+7.4
86 ▲13	Senegal	42.5	51.2	+8.7
87 ▼10	Botswana	50.2	51.1	+0.9
88 ▼5	Rwanda	45.9	50.6	+4.7
89 ▲18	Burkina Faso	38.9	49.6	+10.7
90 ▲17	Tanzania	38.9	49.1	+10.2
=91 ▲15	Benin	39.2	48.1	+8.9
=91 ▼6	Malawi	45.5	48.1	+2.6
93 ▲10	Uganda	41.0	47.7	+6.7
94 ▼2	Mozambique	43.8	47.3	+3.5
95 ▼8	Cote d’Ivoire	45.0	46.5	+1.5
96 ▼3	Cameroon	43.6	46.4	+2.8
97 ▲3	Niger	42.1	46.3	+4.2
98 ↔	Togo	42.7	46.2	+3.5
99 ▲11	Guinea	50.5	45.1	+9.3
100 ▲9	Ethiopia	38.7	44.5	+5.8
101 ▼5	Angola	42.9	43.7	+0.8
102 ▼16	Zambia	45.3	43.5	-1.8
103 ▲8	Chad	35.5	43.2	+7.7
104 ▲9	Congo (Dem. Rep)	33.7	43.0	+9.3
105 ▲6	Sudan	35.5	42.8	+7.3
107 ▼11	Nigeria	42.9	42.0	-0.9
=108▼7	Burundi	42.0	40.6	-1.4
=108▼3	Madagascar	39.4	40.6	+1.2
110 ▼8	Sierra Lone	41.5	40.5	-1.0

Source: Authors’ compilation using underlying data from 2022. GFSI scores [18].

3.5. Hunger and Food Security in Middle East and North Africa (MENA)

Out of 125 countries included in the 2023 GHI scores, 10 belonging to the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region are included in this study (see Table 5a). Seventy percent (7/10) of the countries were categorised in the low hunger level (GHI score ≤ 9.9), with three countries (United Arab Emirates, Turkey, and Kuwait) ranked among the 20 countries jointly ranked 1^st (1/125) with below 5 GHI scores [1]. However, Syria and Yemen were the two countries that witnessed a deterioration in their GHI score (Syria, +9.9; Yemen, +2.2) between 2008 and 2023. Yemen is the only country found in the alarming hunger level (GHI score 35.0-9.9) in this region in 2008 and 2023 (Table 5a). It is important to observe that Yemen and Syria are among the 8 countries considered as “hunger hotspots of significant concern” [22]. All of these hotspots feature a substantial population grappling with or pro-jected to encounter severe levels of FI, along with exacerbating factors that are anticipated to heighten life-threatening circumstances in the early months of 2024 [22]. Yemen ranked as the third-highest in the 2023 GHI score (39.9), recording high level of child undernutri-tion (stunting, 48.7%; wasting 14.4%) in 2023. The enduring conflict in Yemen, now in its ninth year, has been severely damaging to the economy, and the nation’s children have endured substantial suffering [29].

Algeria recorded the most significant reduction in hunger level (-4.3) in the region, moving from GHI score of 11.1 in 2008 to 6.8 (low) hunger level in 2023 [1]. All the North African countries (Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco) except Egypt are in the low hunger level. Although, North African countries are relatively enjoy low to moderate hunger level when compared with SSA where most of the countries belonged to serious and alarming hunger levels [1].

The 2022 GFSI data showed that 87% of the countries in this region recorded a moderate GFSI score (55-69.9) in 2022 [18]. United Arab Emirates (UAE) had the best GHI score (75.2) while Oman emerged as the country with most improved rank (20 places upward) and score (+13.8) in 2022. Syria recorded the worst GFSI score (36.3) and the most deteriorated rank (31 places downward) from 2012 to 2022 from the 15 countries reported in this region. In addition, Kuwait and Syria remained the only two countries that had their GFSI scores declined from 65.7 to 65.2 (-0.5), and from 46.8 to 36.3 (-10.5) in 2012-2022 respectively (see Table 5b) [18]. Syria recorded the worst GFSI score in the 2022 ranking with 113^th position (113/113). According to 2023 Global Report on Food Crises (GRFC), the ongoing conflict in Yemen and Syria, along with escalating economic crises throughout the region, resulted in heightened levels of severe FI in 2022 [2]. The reported also projected that about 18% of the analysed population (38 countries/territories) will face high levels of severe FI in 2023 [2]. In 2022, approximately 34.1 million individuals encountered elevated levels of severe FI in eight countries within the MENA region, marking an increase from 31.9 million in 2021 [2].

Table 5. b. GFSI scores of Middle East and North Africa.

Table 5. b. GFSI scores of Middle East and North Africa.

Food Security Environment (Middle East and North Africa)
Rank/113	Country	Score (2012)	Score (2022)	∆
23 ▲15	United Arab Emirates	63.2	75.2	+12.0
24 ▲4	Israel	67.0	74.8	+7.8
30 ▼7	Qatar	69.9	72.4	+2.5
35 ▲20	Oman	57.4	71.2	+13.8
38 ▼7	Bahrain	64.7	70.3	+5.6
=41 ▲13	Saudi Arabia	58.1	69.9	+11.8
47 ▼10	Jordan	63.3	66.2	+2.9
49 ▼5	Turkey	62.4	65.3	+2.9
50 ▼20	Kuwait	65.7	65.2	-0.5
57 ▲9	Morocco	53.9	63.0	+9.1
62 ▼3	Tunisia	56.0	60.3	+4.3
=68 ▲5	Algeria	50.5	58.9	+8.4
77 ▼10	Egypt	53.8	56.0	+2.2
111 ▼7	Yemen	40.0	40.1	+0.1
113 ▼31	Syria	46.8	36.3	-10.5

Source: Authors’ compilation using underlying data from 2022. GFSI scores [18].

From the underlying data of the 2022 GFSI revealed the identification of 10 countries with most improved scores, alongside the identification of another 10 countries with the most deteriorated scores in the 2022 edition [18]. Table 6a revealed the top 10 countries with most improved GFSI score while Table 6b indicated countries with most deteriorated GFSI scores from 2012 to 2022 [18]. Oman recorded the most improved GFSI score (+13.8) while Burkina Faso (the only SSA in this category) recorded the least improved score (+10.7). In addition, 50% of the countries (Table 6a) fall in the category of moderate score (55-69.9), 40% belonged to the good score while only Burkina Faso belonged to the weak score. From coun-tries with most deteriorated food security environment score, Syria recorded the highest score (-10.5) and belonged to the very weak GFSI score (36.3) along with Haiti (38.5) [18]. Further, four countries in SSA (Zambia, -1.8; Burundi, -1.4; Sierra Leone, -1.0; and Nigeria, -0.9) region were part of this category (most deteriorated GFSI) while Norway was the only European country with the least score (-0.4), though the country still belonged to the very good GFSI score (80.9-80.5) from 2012 to 2022. It worth noting that most of the countries in this category (7/10) had weak GFSI score [18].

Table 6. a. Most improved GFSI score 2022 vs 2012.

Table 6. a. Most improved GFSI score 2022 vs 2012.

2022 Rank	Country	2012 Score	2022 Score	∆
35	Oman	57.4	71.2	+13.8
=25	China	60.5	74.2	+13.7
46	Vietnam	54.5	67.9	+13.4
=52	Bolivia	52.8	65.0	+12.2
23	United Arab Emirates	63.2	75.2	+12.0
=41	Saudi Arabia	58.1	69.9	+11.8
78	Cambodia	44.3	55.7	+11.4
74	Nepal	45.8	56.9	+11.1
33	Uruguay	60.9	71.8	+10.9
89	Burkina Faso	38.9	49.6	+10.7

Table 6. b. Most deteriorated GFSI score 2022 vs 2012.

Table 6. b. Most deteriorated GFSI score 2022 vs 2012.

2022 Rank	Country	2012 Score	2022 Score	∆
113	Syria	46.8	36.3	-10.5
112	Haiti	43.9	38.5	-5.4
106	Venezuela	47.5	42.6	-4.9
=64	Colombia	62.3	60.1	-2.2
102	Zambia	45.3	43.5	-1.8
108	Burundi	42.0	40.6	-1.4
110	Sierra Leone	41.5	40.5	-1.0
107	Nigeria	42.9	42.0	-0.9
50	Kuwait	65.7	65.2	-0.5
3	Norway	80.9	80.5	-0.4

4. Exploring Hunger Severity where Hunger Indicators Reached their Peak

Figure 1. a. Top 10 countries with highest burden of undernourishment during 2020 to 2022. Source: Authors’ compilation using underlying data from 2023 GHI scores [1].

Figure 1. a. Top 10 countries with highest burden of undernourishment during 2020 to 2022. Source: Authors’ compilation using underlying data from 2023 GHI scores [1].

Figure 1. b. Top 10 countries with highest burden of child stunting during 2018-2022. Source: Authors’ compilation using underlying data from 2023 GHI scores [1].

Figure 1. b. Top 10 countries with highest burden of child stunting during 2018-2022. Source: Authors’ compilation using underlying data from 2023 GHI scores [1].

Figure 1. c. Top 10 countries with highest burden of child wasting during 2018-2022. Source: Authors’ compilation using underlying data from 2023 GHI scores [1].

Figure 1. c. Top 10 countries with highest burden of child wasting during 2018-2022. Source: Authors’ compilation using underlying data from 2023 GHI scores [1].

Figure 1. d. Top 10 countries with highest burden of child mortality during 2018-2022. Source: Authors’ compilation using underlying data from 2023 GHI scores [1]

Figure 1. d. Top 10 countries with highest burden of child mortality during 2018-2022. Source: Authors’ compilation using underlying data from 2023 GHI scores [1]

5. Sub-Saharan Africa Suffers the Highest Burden of Food Insecurity Globally

Table 7. a. Top 10 most favourable GFSI scores in 2022.

Table 7. b. Bottom 10 least favourable GFSI in 2022.

6. Limitations of the Study

7. Conclusions

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