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Milestone Description of Indonesian Development Tasks

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19 August 2024

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20 August 2024

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Abstract
Developmental tasks are formed from an analysis of the culture and social demands in which the individual lives and interacts. Developmental psychology defines Milestones as substantial progress in a developmental task. When a person is able to complete developmental tasks at his stage, that person will be happy and consider his development according to his stage. So far, the current developmental tasks are different from the situation and social demands in Indonesia. Thus, the overview of development tasks has yet to be depicted in the psychological development of Indonesians. The aim of the study was to formulate developmental tasks according to the social environment. This research method was carried out through a survey that was distributed online in all regions of Indonesia. The development task screening questionnaire was prepared according to Havighurst's developmental tasks, including a description of open input at each stage. Respondents involved in the study were 345 participants, with a ratio of 78 men and 287 women. The age range of the respondents was 17 years to 63 years. Respondents came from 19 provinces, which means 50 percent of the total number of new provinces in Indonesia. Based on the number of major islands in Indonesia, the respondents represented 4 out of 5 islands or 80%. Hence, the research results can be used to describe Indonesian people. The results show that each stage of development has task contradictions, loss of developmental tasks, addition of developmental tasks and mutual substitution at the previous and subsequent stages. The details at each stage are possible to be elaborated in further studies.
Keywords: 
Subject: Social Sciences  -   Psychology

Introduction

Developmental stages have consequences regarding what one must do and achieve (Havighurst, 1953; Heymans, 1994). When a person has reached a stage of development, that person has met the developmental tasks. Havighurst (in Boyd & Bee (2009), Crain (2014), Developmental Milestones Charts (July 2008)) mentioned that a person will be happy when the person can fulfill all the developmental tasks that must be achieved and will experience difficulties in adjusting to the environment when that person has not fulfilled the tasks development according to age. These stages are part of the developmental age range from birth to old age (Sigelman & Rider, 2012), called the life span perspective. Social pressures and demands determine whether a person has reached a stage of development at his age. Mannerström et al. (201 stated that when a person achieves a developmental task, it shows compliance with social norms.
Theoretically, Robert Havighurst (in Boyd & Bee, 2019; Crain, 2014; Lerner, 2009; Papalia & Felman, 2012) emphasized that learning is fundamental and continues throughout life. Development occurs because of learning and maturity factors. Developmental tasks occur in six stages.
Stage 1. Infancy and Early Childhood Developmental Tasks (0-6 years old): (1) Learn to walk. (2) Learn to take solid food, (3) Learn to speak, (4) Take a toiled training, (5) Learn gender differences, (6) Form concepts and learn language to describe social and physical reality, (7) ) Get ready to read.
Stage 2. Middle Childhood Developmental Tasks (6-12 years old), namely: (1) Learn the physical skills needed for ordinary games, (2) Build a healthy attitude towards oneself as a growing organism, (3) Learn to get along with partners age, (4) Learn appropriate masculine or feminine social roles, (5) Develop fundamental skills in reading, writing, and arithmetic, (6) Develop concepts necessary for everyday life, (7) Develop conscience, morality, and value scale, (8) Achieve personal independence, (9) Develop=attitudes towards social groups and institutions
Stage 3. Adolescent Developmental Tasks (13 -18 years), namely: (1) Achieve new and more mature relationships with age partners of both sexes, (2) Achieve masculine or feminine social roles, (3) Receive physical and using the body in a way effective, (4) Achieve emotional independence of parents and other adults, (5) Prepare for marriage and family life, (6) Prepare for an economic career, (7) Obtain a set of values and an ethical system as a guide for conduct; develop ideology, (8) Desire and accept socially responsible behavior.
Stage 4. Early Adulthood Developmental Tasks (19-30), namely: (1) Choose a spouse, (2) Achieve masculine or feminine social roles, (3) Learn to live with a married partner, (4) Start a family, (5) Raise children, (6) Manage a household, (7) Get started in a job, (8) Take civic responsibilities, (9) Find a fun social group
Stage 5. Middle Age Developmental Tasks (30-60 years old), namely: (1) Achieve adult civic and social responsibility, (2) Build and maintain economic living standards, (3) Help adolescents to become responsible adults and happy, (4) Develop adult leisure activities, (5) Associate with one's partner as a person, (6) Accept and adjust to physiological changes or middle age, (7) Adjust to aging parents.
Stage 6. Later Maturity Development Tasks (60 years old and over), namely: (1) Adjust to reduced physical strength and health, (2) Adjust for retirement and reduced income, (3) Adjust to the death of a spouse, (4) Build affiliation explicitly with age groups, (5) Fulfill social and civic obligations, (6) Establish satisfactory physical living arrangements.

Methods

This study adopted a cross-sectional survey design to explore data on developmental tasks. The online survey was conducted from 27 November 2021 to 21 May 2022, with 345 responses from almost all provinces in Indonesia. The questionnaire was designed and distributed using Google Forms and links shared on social media, i.e., WhatsApp. The link included three sections. The first section was about the respondents' demographic data: age, gender, marital status, education, and provincial city. Section 2 listed the Havighurst developmental tasks with which a "yes appropriate" or "not appropriate" response is concerned. Section 3 included questions about the developmental tasks that respondents stated should be included at each stage of development. The results were processed through FGDs and reviews by experts who understand developmental psychology, education, and Indonesian anthropology.
In addition, this study uses a combination of purposive and snowball techniques to collect data. The inclusion criteria were (1) Indonesian citizens living in Indonesia and (2) aged 17 years or above. Respondents' participation was anonymous and voluntary, and all respondents provided written informed consent before participation.

Findings and Discussion

Findings

Data were obtained from 345 respondents from islands and provinces in Indonesia. Table 1 presents the overview of the respondents.
Furthermore, Table 2 presents the overview of islands and provinces where the respondents reside.
Based on the data, respondents have been distributed in 19 provinces in Indonesia. Compared to the current number of provinces in Indonesia, which are 38, this data has represented 50% of the total existing provinces. When observed based on the number of major islands in Indonesia, respondents have represented 4 of the five islands or 80%. Thus, the research results can be used to describe Indonesian people.

Developmental Tasks: Infancy and Early Childhood

Table 3 presents data from responses regarding infancy developmental tasks according to developmental stages and following what respondents feel and see at Infancy and Early Childhood development stages. After processing the data, the resulting picture is as follows.
Based on Table 3, additional developmental tasks must be focused on for the infancy and early childhood phases. The left column shows developmental tasks based on Robert Havighurst (in Boyd & Bee, 2019; Crain, 2014; Lerner, 2009; Papalia & Felman, 2012), while the right column presents developmental task findings in Indonesia. There are similarities between Havighurst's developmental task and the findings in Indonesia highlighted by lines. There are three similar developmental tasks, three different developmental tasks that are not the same, and one at a different level.
Table 4 shows that additional developmental tasks are narrowed down for the middle childhood phase. Looking at the additions given by the respondents, it is evident that there is a demand for changes to the developmental tasks of middle childhood. The left column is developmental tasks based on Robert Havighurst (in Boyd & Bee, 2019; Crain, 2014; Lerner, 2009; Papalia & Felman, 2012), while the right column is the findings of developmental tasks in Indonesia. The dashes show a similarity between Havighurst's developmental tasks and the findings of developmental tasks in Indonesia. Based on data processing results, four developmental tasks have the same purpose. Furthermore, two developmental tasks are not listed because they have entered the previous stage: learning the physical skills needed for regular play and developing basic reading, writing, and counting skills. Then, one developmental task has a shift. At this stage, they are familiar with masculine and feminine social roles and have started to see gender role equality.
Table 5 shows additional developmental tasks and changes in understanding of developmental tasks in adolescence. However, all of these are still related to lifespan development (Papalia & Felman, 2012; Sigelman & Rider, 2012; Santrock, J.W., 2010). From Table 5, there are developmental tasks from Havighurst detailed in 3 or 2 typical developmental tasks in Indonesia. However, the developmental task of achieving masculine and feminine roles has yet to arise. Likewise, preparing for marriage and family life is no longer a developmental task in adolescence. On the other hand, things related to economic careers are becoming more differentiated regarding financial freedom, career planning, and getting to know economic ventures.
Table 6 shows interest in the developmental tasks of early adulthood. As stated by Robert Havighurst (in Boyd & Bee, 2019; Crain, 2014; Lerner, 2009; Papalia & Felman, 2012), the developmental tasks of early adulthood include "starting to choose a job." Meanwhile, the addition given by the respondents was to start determining and choosing a career. So, the concept has changed to work and have a career. Likewise, financial fulfillment is explicitly a target for early adult development, which is interesting because this shift in social demand will provide a different perspective for Indonesia's current unique developmental tasks. Two Havighusrt developmental tasks have yet to be found: choosing a mate and achieving feminine and masculine social roles. Like the adolescent stage, feminine and masculine social roles are no longer developmental tasks. Gender equality has become a typical Indonesian developmental task in the adolescent stage.
Table 7 shows only three developmental tasks from Havighurst that have similar meanings as typical Indonesian middle age developmental tasks. The social demands on the health of middle age are reflected in two developmental tasks. The first is by regular exercise and healthy diet, and the second is maintaining physical and mental health. The inclusion of the need for this developmental task has become an exciting matter since Havighurst's developmental task focuses more on social roles in middle age. In contrast, the developmental task from Indonesia focuses on physical and mental resilience through several sports activities and healthy diet. Building economic standards in the Havighurst development task is divided into saving for children and planning for inherited assets.
Table 8 shows interesting things that distinguish Havighurst's later maturity developmental tasks from those observed in Indonesia. There are two similar developmental tasks between the Havighusrt development tasks and the findings in Indonesia. The emphasis on the developmental tasks of later maturity in Indonesia, such as demands regarding sincerity, religion, and worship, is reflected in increasing worship, strengthening spirituality and thinking about the afterlife. Issues of personal worship are drawn into social demands and expectations, which is typical in Indonesia. Besides that, the opportunity of being an elder and a role model in the family also appears in the developmental tasks of later maturity in Indonesia.

Discussion

Developmental milestones reflected in developmental tasks are often associated with well-being and life satisfaction (Roisman, 2004; Seiffge-Krenke & Gelhaar, 2008). Social demands and expectations put pressure on the achievement of developmental tasks at each stage. Chebotareva (2015) mentioned that people from various cultures associate well-being and happiness with different values and socioeconomic status backgrounds (James et al., 2006). Lind (2022) stated that the fulfillment of developmental tasks will be well transferred to the next phase of life.
The research results in the infancy and early childhood stages show that learning to speak, toilet training, and learning concepts and language are the focus of developmental tasks in infancy and early childhood. In addition, the task of psychomotor development is detailed from reflexes to independence in utilizing motor development in eating and taking off shoes or clothes. The developmental milestones of infants are physical, cognitive, social, and emotional factors, essential in fulfilling the developmental tasks of infancy and early childhood (Mudannayake et al., 2022). Matsubara et al. (2022) mentioned that the domain of infant development tasks includes four things: (1) Social personal, (2) Fine motor and adaptation, (3) Language, and (4) Gross motor, so gross motor development is not a primary concern but directly affects fine motor skills and adaptation to the environment.
In developmental tasks in Indonesia, the middle childhood development stage no longer develops skills in reading, writing, and counting. Those developmental tasks have been completed in the infant and early childhood stage. In their research, Scharf et al. (2016) stated that the results of interventions in a child's early life have shown various benefits when a child receives speech/language therapy, physical therapy, occupational therapy, or special education services needed in a language-rich preschool classroom environment. Furthermore, Escobedo & Arriaga (2022) stated that when the earlier developmental tasks in milestones are recognized, especially by caregivers, that recognition will be beneficial in developing therapy for further developmental tasks that cannot be carried out in early childhood. In addition, LeBeau (2022) stated that parents paying attention to developmental tasks as the core of developmental milestones will make it easier to detect weaknesses that can be diagnosed, such as Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), and Specific Learning Disorder.
Puberty and adolescence, in general, are not the triggers for great stress and chaos. The storm-and-stress theory has a long history but can no longer be supported by empirical research (Remschmidt, 1994). The tasks observed in the research indicate that adolescent developmental tasks in Indonesia are detailed. Preparing for a detailed career and economy in three ways: introducing economic ventures, pursuing a career and having financial freedom. In their research, Majee et al. (2022) stated that the needs of adolescents occupy the highest need compared to the need for higher education and skill-sharpening activities. This acceleration is impressive that adolescents have been able to prepare for a career. However, adolescents need to learn to deal with failure and disappointment when observing other developmental tasks. One side is optimistic about a career, but on the other hand, there are fears of facing roles in society and society. Iwasa et al. (2023) stated that digital-generation youth are involved in developmental tasks by interacting with others both online and offline. The role of adults is to make sure the adolescents get involved in both environments so they can have a strong mentality when entering a social environment. The results of research by Li M et al. (2023) show that positive parenting patterns of fathers and mothers have a different direct effect on adolescent life satisfaction, and both can indirectly affect adolescent life satisfaction through the mediating variables of father-adolescent attachment and maternal-adolescent attachment. Hence, parental guidance must still be carried out in adolescents with developmental tasks.
In early adulthood developmental tasks, several things were previously mentioned at the adolescent developmental stage, namely the role of masculine and feminine. The problem of acting feminine and masculine is no longer considered a developmental task in adolescence and other stages. This shift proves that adolescents and adults are more concerned with issues of gender equality. Even research from Zhang et al. (2023) shows that questions about sex orientation and gender identity are no longer things that need to be responded to. Issues of gender equality are more important than questions about understanding roles according to gender identity.
The developmental tasks of the middle age and later maturity in Indonesia reflect the cultural demands of Indonesian society. Grandparenting is typical of extended family culture. Becoming a role model and acting as someone who deserves to be the elder emerges as a developmental task in middle adulthood and old age. As the two peak developmental stages, the developmental task of being a parent is the strongest predictor of seeing changes in identity processes over time (Mannerström et al., 2019).

Conclusions

From the research, which aimed to provide an overview of developmental tasks in Indonesia according to the stages of their development, it can be concluded:
  • There are developmental tasks that are directed downward, meaning that certain developmental tasks at a higher stage have become developmental tasks in a lower stage and vice versa.
  • There are additional developmental tasks which characterize Indonesians.
  • There are Havighurst's developmental tasks that were not observed in the developmental tasks in Indonesia.

Declaration

This work was supported by the DRPM of the Ministry of Research and Technology (grant numbers 523/UN3.15/PT/2021)

References

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Table 1. Overview of Respondents.
Table 1. Overview of Respondents.
Frequency Percentage
Age
17 – 25 149 43.18
26 – 40 108 31.30
41 – 63 88 25.51
Sex
Male 78 22.61
Female 267 77.39
Educational Background
High Schools and equivalents 49 14.20
Diploma 12 3.48
Bachelor’s Degree 206 59.71
Master’s degree
Marital Status
Single
Married		 78
178
167		 22.61
51.59
48.41
Table 2. Overview of Islands and Provinces of Respondents.
Table 2. Overview of Islands and Provinces of Respondents.
Province Frequency Percentage
Java Island
West Java 29 8.41
Central Java 25 7.25
East Java 121 35.07
Yogyakarta 2 0.58
Jakarta 15 4.35
Banten 4 1.16
Sumatera Island
North Sumatera 29 8.41
Riau 2 0.58
West Sumatera 2 0.58
Lampung 1 0.29
Kalimantan Island
North Kalimantan 5 1.45
East Kalimantan 1 0.29
West Kalimantan 1 0.29
South Kalimantan 36 10.43
Sulawesi Island
South Sulawesi 39 11.30
Gorontalo 11 3.19
Riau Islands 1 0.29
West Nusa Tenggara 6 1.74
Bali 15 4.35
Table 3. Infancy and Early Childhood (0-6 years old).
Table 3. Infancy and Early Childhood (0-6 years old).
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Table 4. Middle Childhood Developmental Tasks (6 – 12 years old).
Table 4. Middle Childhood Developmental Tasks (6 – 12 years old).
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Table 5. Adolescence Developmental Tasks (13 -18 years old).
Table 5. Adolescence Developmental Tasks (13 -18 years old).
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Table 6. Early Adulthood Developmental Tasks (19-30 years old).
Table 6. Early Adulthood Developmental Tasks (19-30 years old).
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Table 7. Middle Age Developmental Tasks (30 – 60 years old).
Table 7. Middle Age Developmental Tasks (30 – 60 years old).
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Table 8. Later Maturity Developmental Tasks (above 60 years old).
Table 8. Later Maturity Developmental Tasks (above 60 years old).
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