1. Introduction

Figure 1. - Map-scheme of Ulytau Geopark and location of main facilities.

Figure 1. - Map-scheme of Ulytau Geopark and location of main facilities.

2. Geological Characteristics

2.2. Geological Structure

Copper deposits in the Ulytau region belong to the Zhezkazgan type with unique and high-quality copper reserves concentrated in 9 ore-bearing horizons of medium thickness in a relatively compact area.

In Kazakhstan more than 70% copper deposits are stratiform, the host rocks of which are sediment-hosted, with significant differences in size, reserves and mineral associations.

• The Zhezkazgan ore field is located at the junction of the meridional folds of the Ulytau zone with the latitudinally extending block-fold structures of the Sarysu-Teniz uplift. At their junction, brachyanticlines, domes and troughs are developed, which were named by Yu.A. Zaitsev (Hayes T.S., Einaudi M.T. 1986) as a Kengir zone of brachyfold structures.

In the folded structure of the region, three floors are distinguished (Seifullin S.Sh. 1957, Zaitsev Y.A., Gabay N.L., Golubovsky V.A., Potapochkin V.M., Martynova M.V. , 1961, Nuralin N.N. 1959, Big Dzhezkazgan. Geology and Metallogeny // Proceedings of the Joint Scientific Session 1961, Zaitsev Yu., 1961, Seifullin S.Sh. et al. , 1976, Nuralin N.N. 1961): Caledonian the lower, Hercynian the middle and Alpine the upper.

The lower structural floor consists of complex anticlinoria (Ulytau, Kerei) and synclinoria (Yeskuly), composed of the Ordovician and Silurian strata, which forms the western wing of the Yeskuly synclinorium. Lower Paleozoic rocks are characterized by steep layer inclination angles (60-70°) and shallow intrastratal folding. The anticlinoria and synclinorium of the lower structural floor are oriented in the meridional direction.

Rocks of the Devonian, Carboniferous and Permian systems participate in the structure of the middle structural floor. Brachyfolds are of primary importance formations and block folds associated with large latitudinal faults.

In the middle structural level, three tectonic zones are clearly distinguished: the Ulytau uplift zone, including the Zhanai and Itauz anticlines and the Yeskuly and Ulytau domes; the Sarysu-Teniz zone of uplifts with developed latitudinal block folds and the Kengir zone of brachyfold structures, located at the junction of the Ulytau and Sarysu-Teniz zones. The largest folds of the Kengir zone are Kengir, Uytas, Ortakagyl brachyanticlines and Zhezkazgan syncline. In the eastern part of the Kengir zone, brachyfolds of latitudinal orientation are developed, in the western part the folds have a meridional Ulytau strike.

The listed main folded structures are complicated by folds of higher orders, forming flexures, domes and troughs. They are also susceptible to numerous rupture failures. Differently oriented Hercynian structures articulate into a single node in the Zhezkazgan region. Folded structures, oriented meridionally in the west of the region, gradually acquire a latitudinal strike to the east. At the junction of differently oriented dislocations in the area of the Zhezkazgan mine, small anticlines of a higher order are developed: the Akchiy, Pokro, Kresto and Annensky domes.

Figure 2. - Geological map of Ulytau region.

Figure 2. - Geological map of Ulytau region.

Upper structural floor. Cenozoic sediments rest on the Hercynian structural level almost horizontally with a sharp angular unconformity. Vertical movements that repeatedly appeared in Alpine times are evidenced by tectonic depressions in which Cenozoic sediments accumulated.

Against the background of the Hercynian structural stage, structures of Cimmerian, Alpine and recent tectogenesis appear. Structural forms of Cimmerian tectogenesis are developed in the territories adjacent to the ore region in the form of depressions filled with Mesozoic lignite deposits. The tectonic structure of the Cimmerian structures is inherited and corresponds to the plan of the Hercynian structural floor.

Alpine tectogenesis is marked by rather powerful phases, as a result of which large syneclises of Alpine time are formed, filled with sediments of Mesozoic-Cenozoic age. Mesozoic sediments are folded into gentle brachyfolds, complicated by younger faults. During Alpine times, the territory of the ore region experienced uplift and intense denudation. During this period, the Kengir and Akchiy brachyanticlines, transverse to Hercynian structures, were apparently formed.

In recent and modern periods, oscillatory and tangential movements developed in the territory of the ore region, clearly recorded in the form of unconformities between the stratigraphic units of Cenozoic deposits, in the elements of geomorphology in the form of tectonic ledges and the formation of terraces in river valleys. The formation of the relief and engineering-geological conditions of the deposits in the region are also associated with these processes.

2.3. Stratigraphy of the Area

The geological structure of the area involves a complex of sediments belonging to the Precambrian, Lower, Middle and Upper Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic. The petrographic composition of these complexes is also complex and diverse, including crystalline schists, gneisses, Precambrian hyperbasites, intrusive, effusive, pyroclastic, normal sedimentary rocks of the Paleozoic (the degree of metamorphism of which increases from top to bottom) and sedimentary rocks of the Mesozoic-Cenozoic (Arustamov A.A., Esenov Sh.E., Parshin G.B., 1968, Bespalov V.F., 1960, Litvinovich N.V., Golubovskaya T.N., Golubovsky V.A., 1974, Litvinovich N.V., 1962, Seifullin S.S., 1957)

Pre-Paleozoic rocks are represented by crystalline schists. Above the sequence of crystalline schists is a suite of metamorphosed rocks of the Lower Paleozoic. Pre-Paleozoic and Lower Paleozoic rocks are exposed in the Karsakpay area, in the Yeskuly and Ulytau mountains.

The modern stratigraphy of the Upper Paleozoic is more greatly detailed than the actual stratigraphic scheme and interprets the age of the Zhezkazgan formation differently (S.E. Esenova, Y.A. Zaitseva, 1975)

Lower Proterozoic. The stratified Precambrian strata exposed in the core of the Yeskuly dome, according to the local stratigraphic scheme of the Zhezkazgan-Ulutau region, are attributed to the Bekturgan and Aralbay series. The total thickness of the Lower Proterozoic deposits is at least 2100 m. The Bekturgan series is composed of amphibolites, mica, mica-plagioclase schists, and the Aralbai series includes a volcanic-sedimentary sequence of albitophyric composition. The rocks of the named series are the most ancient in the region.

Paleozoic. The Cambrian system is represented by rocks of the Shaitantas Formation, which unconformably overlies Proterozoic metamorphic formations. It is overlain by the Ordovician Koskuduk Formation distributed in large sags of the roof of the Shaitantas ultrabasic massif to the northwest of Mount Shaitantas, in the extreme northeast of the Yeskuly dome. The lower half of the formation section is composed of gray, greenish-gray sandstones, mudstones, greenish-gray boulder and pebble conglomerates with pebbles of sandstones, shales, granite-gneisses, gabbro-amphibolites and amphibolites. The upper part of the formation is a uniform sequence of greenish-gray, light gray, fine-grained sandstones, tuff sandstones, siltstones with small interbeds of mudstones. The total thickness of the formation is at least 1500 m.

Ordovician deposits are exposed in the vicinity of the Yeskuly hills in the form of a narrow meridionally elongated strip about 2 km wide and 18 km long. They are represented by sandstones, siltstones, mudstones, and conglomerates; carbonate rocks occupy a significant place. The total thickness of the Ordovician exceeds 1300 m. The entire thickness is intensively crushed, often Ordovician formations are located in tectonic blocks.

Based on lithological features, stratigraphic sequence and structural relationships, the entire complex of Ordovician formations is divided into three formations (from bottom to top): Koskuduk, Eskuly, Kyzyl Shoka. These formations are of purely local importance, as they are developed over a very small area. They are all divided by disagreements.

The Lower Devonian within the territory under consideration is represented predominantly by terrigenous deposits, in contrast to the eastern parts of the Zhezkazgan region, where it is composed of volcanogenic strata. Sedimentary strata of the Lower Devonian in the west of Central Kazakhstan are not known anywhere else. This circumstance, as well as the high saturation of fossil flora, gives the Lower Devonian section of the Yeskuly dome great importance.

The Lower Devonian deposits, despite their limited areal distribution, are represented by a thick (up to 2700 m) section and are classified as the Kyzyltau Formation. The Kyzyltau Formation within the Kyzyltau Graben is divided into three subformations: the lower conglomerate, the middle variegated and the upper volcanogenic one. The rocks of the lower part of the Kyzyltau formation consist of variegated conglomerates, gravelites, sandstones, and rarely siltstones. Middle subformation composed of various green-gray and red-brown sandstones. At its base, gravelstones are widely developed, and there are interlayers of small pebble conglomerates. Ash tuffs are present at the top of the section. In the extreme northeast of the Yeskuly dome, east of the Zhaman-Keregetas mountains, the middle subformation of the Kyzyltau formation is represented by alternating variegated fine- and medium-grained sandstones, siltstones, occasionally with interlayers of gravelstones. In the upper part of the section, poorly preserved prints of psilophytes were found. Upper subformation formed by rhyolites, their paleotype varieties, rhyolite tuffs, tuff conglomerates. The total thickness of the Lower Devonian deposits is about 2500 m.

Middle-upper sections. Within the Zhezkazgan-Ulytau region, the Zhaksykon series is the most widespread among Devonian deposits. It rests unconformably on all older sediments, Ordovician and Middle Devonian granitoids. The Zhaksykon series is divided into three formations: Kyshtau, Airtau and Zhezdy. The two lower formations, when approaching the Karsakpai uplift and the Yeskuly dome, successively wedge out from north to south and fall out of the series section, and the Zhezdy formation transgressively falls on more ancient complexes. The Zhaksykon series as a whole belongs to the Middle-Upper Devonian.

The Zhezdy formation is distributed in the west of the territory under consideration on the wings of the Yeskuly dome, as well as in the extreme east of the region, on the left bank of the river Karakingir in the Uytas Mountains. The main fields of development of the formation are located in the vicinity of the Zhezdy deposit, traced along the western and northern wings of the Yeskuly dome. The Zhezdy Formation is unconformably overlain by the Uytas Formation. Grayish-green medium-grained polymictic sandstones appear locally in the sandstone-conglomerate sequence.

The Zhezdy formation in the area of the Zhezdy deposit is broken through by cutting veins of barite-iron-manganese composition. The thickness of the Zhezdy formation in the vicinity of the Zhezdy field varies greatly: reaching a maximum in the zone of the Zhezdy and Promezhutochnoye fields, it quickly decreases, according to drilling data, to the south and to the north. The thickness of the Zhezdy Formation varies from a few tens of m to 550 m.

The rocks of the Upper Devonian are represented in the region by the Famennian stage, composed of terrigenous and carbonate rocks. Its outcrops occupy small areas mainly to the northwest and northeast of Zhezkazgan, where they are usually confined to the wings of anticlinal folds. Famennian deposits are well exposed in the coastal cliffs of the river. Karakingir and at the southern end of the Itauz ridge. The Famennian stage is composed of a variety of limestones, dolomites, sandstones, siltstones, gravelites and small pebble conglomerates. The total thickness in most of the Zhezkazgan region is 220-520 m. Carbonate rocks, mainly dolomites, are present here only in the uppermost parts of the section.

Compared to the most complete section of the Famennian stage, located in the middle reaches of the river. Karakingir to the north of the territory under consideration, sections of the south of the Zhezkazgan region are abbreviated. In both the western and eastern sections, at the base of the Famennian there are terrigenous formations classified as the Uytas Formation; its upper part, represented by limestones and dolomites, belongs to the sulciferic horizon. The Uytas Formation corresponds to the Meisterian and partly Sulciferian horizons.

The Uytas Formation is a red-colored, locally variegated terrigenous sequence, composed predominantly of arkose and feldspathic-quartz sandstones, siltstones, and less commonly mudstones. Up the section it is gradually replaced by limestones of the upper Famennian stage; At the same time, variegated terrigenous formations are partly replaced by limestones. In the western parts of the Zhezkazgan region, the Uytas Formation lies unconformably; its base is composed of a characteristic thin (6-50 m) member of red-colored well-sorted quartz sandstones. This marking horizon is clearly visible on the northern, western and eastern wings of the Yeskuly dome. In the area of the Zhezdy and Promezhutochnoye deposits, strata deposits of manganese ores are confined to the base of the Uytas Formation. In the northern parts of the Yeskuly dome, under a member of quartz sandstones, there is a thin horizon of boulder conglomerates with pebbles and boulders of quartz, quartzites, and acidic volcanic rocks. In the eastern parts of the Zhezkazgan region, the Uytas Formation has greater thickness and is connected with the underlying Zhezdy Formation by a gradual lithological transition. There is no disagreement on its basis here.

Figure 3. - Stratigraphic scheme of the Ulytau region.

Figure 3. - Stratigraphic scheme of the Ulytau region.

The sulciferous horizon in the east of the Zhezkazgan region is composed of dark gray limestones and dolomites. The limestones are fine-grained, less often pelitoform, with fine organic detritus, and dense. At the bottom, limestones usually contain an admixture of sandy and clayey material. The transition from the Uytas Formation is gradual.

Limestones in the lower carbonate part of the section have a characteristic lumpy composition, are thick-layered, have bumpy bedding surfaces, and usually contain numerous remains of brachiopods . Higher up the section, the limestones become more dense, thick-plated , interlayers of dolomitized limestones appear there, which are replaced at the very top of the section by a pack of dark gray and black dolomites containing subordinate interlayers of limestones. The thickness of carbonate deposits increases from south to north from 100 to 250-300 m. The Dolomites are conformably overlain by light gray limestones of the Tournaisian stage.

Carbon deposits are widespread in the study area.

The Lower Carboniferous is represented by a carbonate strata, which in the upper part of the section gives way to terrigenous formations that everywhere underlie the ore-bearing strata.

The Tournaisian stage (Kassin and Rusakov horizons) and the lower Ishim layers of the Visean stage are formed mainly by limestones with an admixture of detrital and clayey material, layered, silicified. The Famennian and Tournaisian stages and lower Ishim layers are combined into a limestone formation, widespread throughout the western part of Central Kazakhstan.

The Upper Ishim layers, Yagovkin, Dalnen and Beleuty horizons belong to Visean and Serpukhovian stages. Represented by terrigenous rocks and limestones. They are characterized by a clearly expressed rhythm of bedding. In the upper part of the limestone-terrigenous formation (upper Beleuty layers), there is no clear rhythm in the structure of the section.

In the area of the Zhezkazgan deposit, deposits of the upper Carboniferous, represented by copper-bearing rocks, are widely developed. Zhezkazgan series, which is subdivided into Taskuduk (lower ore-bearing) and Zhezkazgan (upper ore-bearing) formations.

2.

The section of the ore-bearing strata within the Zhezkazgan deposit was studied by academician K.I. Satpaev (1935) and refined according to subsequent studies by other authors [46–52].

The ore-bearing formations are represented by a strata of alternating terrigenous and clayey rocks that are uniform in structure; sandstones and siltstones usually predominate, with mudstones subordinate to them. Interlayers and lenses of conglomerates and limestones are rare. Of particular importance is the marker horizon of silicified limestones, which can be traced with very small interruptions throughout almost the entire territory of the development of productive formations. The predominant colors of rocks are brown, red-brown, gray and green-gray. In many places, gray and green-gray sandstones are associated with copper and lead mineralization, which is usually absent in rocks with brown and red-brown color.

The rocks involved in the structure of the lower Taskuduk (С₂ts) ore-bearing formation gradually transform down the section into lithologically similar Upper Beleutinian layers. The Taskuduk Formation consists of 16 layers of red-colored and gray-colored rocks, forming three ore-bearing horizons. The lower boundary of the formation is drawn by the appearance of red-colored mudstones, siltstones, and, less commonly, gray-colored sandstones with a brownish tint. Basically, the boundary coincides with the roof of a thick layer of greenish-gray sandstones crowning the section of the Upper Beleutinian layers.

The Zhezkazgan formation (С₃d$\stackrel{⌣}{z}$) consists of separate gray-colored layers of sandstones, siltstones and mudstones, alternating in the section, combined into seven ore-bearing horizons. At the base of the formation lie the ubiquitous Raimundovian conglomerates, consisting of well-rounded pebbles of rocks from the surrounding area. The rocks of the ore-hosting Zhezkazgan Formation in all areas of their distribution are characterized by small hilly relief and the development of narrow ridges and crests. The total thickness of the formation is 600-700 m.

Above the ore-bearing strata lie the rocks of the Permian system and Mesozoic-Cenozoic.

The Permian system within the Zhezkazgan region is divided on a lithological basis into two formations: Zhidelisai the lower and Kengir the upper.

The Zhidelisai Formation (R₁$\stackrel{⌣}{z}d$) is composed of fine-grained red-brown and gray-violet terrigenous rocks. In the deposits of the Zhidelisai Formation, relatively frequent facies variability is observed, expressed in the replacement of mudstones that dominate the section with siltstones and sandstones. Closer to the top of the section, the number of sandstones increases, and their cement becomes significantly calcareous. The thickness of the formation is 300-410 m.

The Kengir Formation (P₁₋₂kn) in the lower part of its section is represented by brownish-pink, whitish, fine- and fine-grained calcareous sandstones and siltstones with interlayers of brownish-gray mudstones, as well as gray, thin-platy marls. In clayey marls, strong gypsum is established. The thickness of the rocks of the Kingir Formation is 1100-1450 m.

Mesozoic. On the territory of the Zhezkazgan ore district, Mesozoic weathering crusts of a relatively narrow distribution are developed along Paleozoic sedimentary strata and intrusive rocks. Outcrops of weathering crust are confined to watershed spaces and are covered by Paleogene or Neogene deposits. The weathering crust has a kaolin, nontronite and silicified profile.

Cenozoic. Paleogene deposits are represented by Akchi and Chagray formations that are overlain by the Aral and Zhilandy formations of Neogene age.

The Akchi Formation also unconformably overlain by younger Neogene deposits lie sharply unconformably on the Paleozoic surface. The formation is represented by a variety of variegated clays, to which a large amount of sand and gravel-pebble material is often mixed. Maximum thickness of the formation (110 m).

Rocks of the Chagrai Formation, represented by a homogeneous layer of quartz sands and pebbles with rare lens-shaped interlayers of gray clays and siltstones, everywhere overlie variegated clays of the Akchi Formation. Its thickness varies from 12 to 23 m.

The Neogene includes deposits of the Aral , Zhilandy and Pavlodar formations. Lumpy green gypsum clays of the Aral Formation usually fill ancient depressions produced in the Mesozoic peneplain by pre-Miocene erosion and are widespread.

Clays often contain small (4-5 mm) concentrically structured beads of iron and manganese hydroxides. In places, the clays acquire yellowish and brownish tints, and fine gravelly material of Paleozoic rocks appears there. Crushed stones of milky-white quartz and silicified limestones of the Tournaisian stage are more common. Transparent lamellar gypsum forms small brushes and druses. In general, the Aral Formation is characterized by uniformity and consistency of composition. The main rock-forming minerals of clays are montmorillonite and beidellite.

The Zhilandy Formation is widespread in the northern and central parts of the territory, usually within watershed areas. The formation is represented by yellowish-gray and brown clays, loams and sandy loams containing fragments, crushed stone, and poorly rounded pebbles of Paleozoic rocks. At the base of the formation there are usually greenish-brown lumpy clays with fragments of Paleozoic rocks up to 1 m in size. The thickness of the horizon varies, but does not exceed 5 m. Above is a horizon of brown sandy clays with lens-shaped sand layers up to > 15-20 m thick. The section is crowned by as a rule, brown and red-brown non-layered clays with crushed stone and pebbles of Paleozoic rocks with a thickness of 7-10 m. The total thickness of the Zhilandy formation in the most complete sections does not exceed 35-40 m.

The Pavlodar formation is the youngest in the context of the Neogene system. Its outcrops are widespread in the west and central part of the territory. Relatively small areas are occupied by it in the northeast of the region, along the left bank of the river Karakingir. It is represented by various alluvial deposits of ancient river valleys: sands, sandy loams and pebbles. On the surface of the accumulative plains, composed of sediments of the Pavlodar Formation, residual forms of meanders were preserved. Often, at the base of the Pavlodar Formation there are boulder pebble accumulations, which consist mainly of well-rounded boulders and pebbles of milky white quartz, less often pebbles of effusive rocks. The thickness of the Pavlodar formation within the territory under consideration is 18-20 m.

2.3.1. Intrusive Complexes of the Area

On the territory of the Zhezkazgan ore district, outcrops of intrusive and metamorphosed formations are known only within the core of the Yeskuly dome. On the surface here, Precambrian and Lower Paleozoic rocks are identified, containing intrusive complexes of varied composition and age (S.S. Seifullin, N.N. Nuralin, L.V. Kopyatkevich, 1976, S.E. Esenova, Y.A. Zaitseva, 1975).

Of particular interest are Proterozoic endoliths. These are metamorphosed rocks, mainly gabbro-amphibolites with inclusions of magnetite, titanomagnetite, epidote and gneiss granites. The latter are represented by massive varieties with large-block individuality.

The age of gabbro-amphibolites is conventionally accepted as Proterozoic, since they break through the Savinsky formation of the Lower Proterozoic and, in turn, are subject to granitization. In the gneiss complex of the Yeskuly dome, the most ancient are plagiogranitic gneisses; they are cut through by gneiss granites.

Ordovician intrusive rocks are also confined to the core of the Yeskuly dome and the Shaitantas massif of ultrabasic rocks, which cut through Precambrian granite-gneisses and volcanic-sedimentary and sedimentary rocks of the Lower Paleozoic. Within the Shaitantas massif, gabbros form isometric or somewhat elongated bodies at the eastern edge of the massif. During the processes of hydrothermal metasomatism, due to basic and ultrabasic rocks, listvenites, garnet-pyroxene rocks are formed, and skarns at the contact with limestones.

Pre-Devonian granitoid intrusions make up two massifs on the western slope of the Yeskuly dome: the Zhezdy and Naizatas massifs, which are separated from each other by the Zhezdy field of Precambrian shales and amphibolites. Both intrusive massifs are similar in composition and are represented by biotite granites, quartz diorites, quartz syenite-diorites, complicated by a vein series of granites and quartz diorites.

3. Objects and Discussion

3.1. Zhezkazgan Group of Deposits

Near the city, in the northern direction, there are large quarries of cuprous sandstones of the Zhezkazgan group of deposits: Zhamanaybat, Itauyz, Saryoba, etc. This unique deposit has no equal among similar ones in the number of ore-bearing horizons and in the multicomponent material composition of the ores.

Large deposits near the cities of Zhezkazgan and Satpaev are developed by open-pit mining and visiting the quarries becomes a real journey into the bowels of the Earth. In the quarry of the Zhezkazgan deposit, stratum, ribbon- and lens-shaped ore bodies occur in accordance with the host rocks. Mineralization is most often multi-layered; there are 26 ore members in nine ore-bearing horizons. The main reserves of copper ores are concentrated in deposits of primary sulfide ores at a depth of 300 - 350 m. The length of individual ore bodies reaches several kilometers with a thickness of 1 to 20 m or more. The largest ore bodies sometimes reach enormous sizes (area of several square kilometers, thickness of several tens of m).

The age of the host rocks varies from Proterozoic to Neogene. Large industrial deposits of cuprous sandstones are known mainly in Precambrian, Carboniferous and Permian deposits.

The section of sediments composing the trough begins with Lower Devonian volcanic rocks of various compositions, interbedded with red sandstones. Above that lie terrigenous and carbonate deposits: red sandstones and conglomerates of the Middle Devonian, silicified limestones, sandstones and marls of the Lower Carboniferous. The total thickness of these deposits is 1500 m. They are conformably overlain by the productive Zhezkazgan formation of the Middle- Upper Carboniferous age with a thickness of about 700 m. Its section is represented by rhythmically alternating gray and red sandstones and siltstones with subordinate layers of conglomerates. The Zhezkazgan Formation is overlain by crimson-red sandstones, mudstones, limestones and marls of Lower Permian age. Paleozoic deposits are in places covered by a cover of variegated, weakly cemented sandstones, clays, sands and pebbles of the Paleogene and Neogene.

Figure 4. – Zhezkazgan mine, Itauz open pit (2 – Photo by A.Bekbotaeva).

Figure 4. – Zhezkazgan mine, Itauz open pit (2 – Photo by A.Bekbotaeva).

The bulk of copper is concentrated in three widespread minerals: chalcopyrite, bornite and chalcocite. Lead mineralization is represented by galena, and zinc mineralization by sphalerite (mainly cleiophane). Silver is present in ores in the form of independent minerals (including native silver) or is included as an isomorphic impurity in sulfide lattices. Rhenium is associated with copper sulfides; its maximum content is established in bornite. A new rhenium mineral, Zhezkazganite, was discovered at the deposit. Among the trace minerals in the ores, pyrite, marcasite, arsenopyrite, betechtinite, copper and cobalt arsenides, and fahlores were also identified.

Figure 5. – Zhezkazgan deposit. Dendrite of nugget copper oxidised from the surface. Satbaev University (Almaty) Geological Research Museum; Nugget copper. Research Geological Museum, K.I. Satpayev Institute of Geological Sciences (Almaty,). Photo by S.A. Nigmatova.

Figure 5. – Zhezkazgan deposit. Dendrite of nugget copper oxidised from the surface. Satbaev University (Almaty) Geological Research Museum; Nugget copper. Research Geological Museum, K.I. Satpayev Institute of Geological Sciences (Almaty,). Photo by S.A. Nigmatova.

The main primary minerals are chalcocite, bornite, chalcopyrite, galena, sphalerite; minor ones: pyrite, marcasite, covellite, faded ores, native silver; rar: betechtinite, omeykite, stromeyerite, argentite, Zhezkazganite, pyrrhotite, safflorite, cobaltite. Of the secondary ore minerals, 31 are described: native elements, oxides, sulfides, halogens, carbonates, sulfates and silicates. Non-metallic minerals: calcite, quartz, barite, chalcedony, anglesite, gypsum, aragonite, etc.

Figure 6. – Minerals from the Zheskazgan deposit: a) malachite and azurite, b) bornite, c) crystals of sphalerite-kleiophane, c) crystals of malachite on sandstone, e) crystal (~2 cm along the edge) of red kleiophane with yellow zones partially in a dense crust of chalcopyrite (mine No. 57, photo from https://webmineral. Ru/minerals/image.php?id=20215 ) i) azurite counter on sandstone rubbed with malachite, g) calcite crystal on cuprous sandstone (bornite, chalcosine) (Photo by S. Nigmatova (except e) from Satpayev University Museum of Education).

Figure 6. – Minerals from the Zheskazgan deposit: a) malachite and azurite, b) bornite, c) crystals of sphalerite-kleiophane, c) crystals of malachite on sandstone, e) crystal (~2 cm along the edge) of red kleiophane with yellow zones partially in a dense crust of chalcopyrite (mine No. 57, photo from https://webmineral. Ru/minerals/image.php?id=20215 ) i) azurite counter on sandstone rubbed with malachite, g) calcite crystal on cuprous sandstone (bornite, chalcosine) (Photo by S. Nigmatova (except e) from Satpayev University Museum of Education).

The main accompanying components of industrial importance: silver, rhenium, osmium, cadmium; minor: cobalt, nickel, molybdenum, tin, bismuth, arsenic, antimony, tellurium, selenium, gallium, indium, thallium, germanium, palladium, platinum, mercury.

The main ore minerals: chalcocite, bornite, galena, sphalerite. Ores, in addition to copper, also contain lead, zinc, molybdenum, and silver. A new mineral Zhezkazganite was discovered at the deposit.

Ore has been mined here since the beginning of the XX century. In 1943, the Zhezkazgan Copper Smelting Plant was formed, which included 17 mines of the Zhezkazgan mine, and the mine production was united into the Zhezkazgan Mining Administration.

The city of Satpaev is 7 km northwest of the city of Zhezkazgan. It was built in the 50s of the last century specifically for miners and at first it was a working village called Nikolsky. In the 1970s, the village received the status of a city, and in 1990 it was renamed in honor of the famous Kazakh geologist Kanysh Satpaev, organizer of Kazakh science, founder of the school of metallogeny in Kazakhstan.

Figure 7. – a – ventilation shaft air intake and auxiliary buildings of mine #57, behind it you can see the Annenskaya mine header, located 5 km south-west of Satpayev and 20 km north-west of Zhezkazgan; b – Zlatoust-Belovsky open pit, located ~ 23 km north-west of Zhezkazgan (photo by D.Rugis).

Figure 7. – a – ventilation shaft air intake and auxiliary buildings of mine #57, behind it you can see the Annenskaya mine header, located 5 km south-west of Satpayev and 20 km north-west of Zhezkazgan; b – Zlatoust-Belovsky open pit, located ~ 23 km north-west of Zhezkazgan (photo by D.Rugis).

The Annenskaya mine, built in 1985, is clearly visible from Satpaev. It is one of the most modern shafts in the mine, and an example of industrial architecture. Due to its enormous size and memorable appearance, the mine dominates the surrounding area.

Geological type	Mineralogical, stratigraphic, historical-mining-geological, landscape-geomorphological
Tourist specialization	Industrial, scientific, educational tourism
Rank	5, 4
Accessibility	4
Possibility of independent travel	4
Informational support	3
Preservation	4
Scientific and educational significance	5
Aesthetic appeal	4
Tourist infrastructure	3

All these objects – quarries, mines, anthropogenically modified landscape of the territory – can be used for the development of industrial, scientific and educational tourism.

3.2. Karsakpai

Approximately 90 km west of the city of Zhezkazgan and 70 km from the city of Satpaev is the village-museum of Karsakpai. Here is located the first metallurgical plant, built in the steppes of Central Kazakhstan at the beginning of the twentieth century, and the Kanysh Satpaev’s house-museum, dedicated to the prominent geologist, founder of the metallogenic school and researcher of the Zhezkazgan copper and magnesium deposit. The village was founded in 1912 by a foreign concession under the construction of the Karsakpai Copper Smelter (eng. Korsak-Pay Smelter)) (Yagovkin I.S., 2008).

In 1908, the English engineer Harvey visited the Zhezkazgan deposits and, upon returning to London, reported that one of the largest copper deposits in the world had been identified here, however, at great distance from the railway.

In December 1912, it was decided to build a copper smelter in the Karsakpai tract. Here the river made a loop and, according to the project, it was blocked with a small dam with a reservoir, which has survived to this day. Eighteen small mines with a depth of 6 to 80 m were laid, and exploration work was carried out for the construction of a narrow-gauge railway with a length of 120 kilometers. In 1913, a small brick factory was built, several pits were dug for industrial buildings, and 15 mud-brick houses were built. In 1914, the foundation was laid for an enrichment plant for the future copper plant. Everything needed was carried on horses and camels. In 1914-1917, a narrow-gauge railway was built connecting the village of Baikonur with Karsakpai and Dzhusaly station. Now in the village of Karsakpai only isolated fragments of the narrow gauge road remain, dismantled in the early 1980s. On October 8, 1917, a train arrived in Karsakpai with equipment, which began to be quickly installed, but due to the civil war, the work was not completed.

Figure 8. - The house-museum of K.I. Satpayev in Karsakpai village. Ore sample near the house and personal belongings of K.I. Satpayev (museum exposition).

Figure 8. - The house-museum of K.I. Satpayev in Karsakpai village. Ore sample near the house and personal belongings of K.I. Satpayev (museum exposition).

Exploration and industrial development of the deposit continued in the mid-20s of the last century under the leadership of geologist Kanysh Satpaev. In 1928, the Karsakpai copper smelter began operating, with the reverberatory furnace and concentration plant being the first of its kind in the USSR. The Karsakpai Metallurgical Plant remains a city-forming enterprise to this day. Here you can still see working English pre-revolutionary equipment.

Currently, in connection with the opening of the Zhezkazgan copper smelter, the Karsakpai Metallurgical Plant specializes in ferrous metallurgy, producing more than 80 types of components for mining and metallurgical equipment.

Another attraction is the Karsakpai Dam, where in the summer a backwater is created downstream to create a mild microclimate.

In Karsakpai there is a house-museum of a prominent Kazakh geologist, scientist and organizer of science, Academician K.I. Satpaev. The museum’s exhibitions include household items of that time, personal belongings of the famous Kazakh geologist, books, rock samples, and other unique museum objects. Samples of copper ore are installed near the house.

Geological type of geoheritage	Mineralogical, historical-mining-geological, stratigraphic, landscape-geomorphological
Tourist specialization	Industrial, scientific, educational tourism
Rank	5, 4
Accessibility	4
Possibility of independent travel	4
Informational support	3
Preservation	4
Scientific and educational significance	5
Aesthetic appeal ( subjective evaluation )	4
Tourist infrastructure	3

The village of Baikonir is located 55 km west of the village Karsakpai. Here, in a depression filled with Mesozoic lignite deposits, brown coal used for metallurgical purposes has been mined since ancient times. Not far from the village on flat blocks of rocks on both sides of the Baikonir River.

The Baikonyr rock paintings were found 2.6 km west of the village of Baikonyr. Along the river, on the rocks, groups of rock paintings of animals, beasts, images of hunting scenes and chariots are carved. The images date back to the Bronze Age, Early Iron Age and the Middle Ages. In some places you can see running wolves, people on horses and camel caravans.

Figure 9. – The petroglyphs of the Baikonur tract.

Figure 9. – The petroglyphs of the Baikonur tract.

3.3. Town of Zhezdy

35 km northeast of the village Karsakpai, along the highway Zhezkazgan-Ulytau, is the village Zhezdy, famous for manganese deposits.

The Zhezdy group of deposits is located in two groups of ore bodies, spaced 70 km from each other. The deposit has mines, a processing plant and an industrial center in the village Zhezdy.

In the Zhezdy deposit, manganese is found in the form of the mineral braunite with an admixture of psilomelane.

Manganese minerals in the area of the Zhezdy River were discovered by the expedition of K.I. Satpaev in 1928. Further exploration and industrial development of the deposit were continued under the leadership of K.I. Satpaev only in 1941-1942. During the war years, the Zhezde deposit produced 70.9% of all manganese ores in the country.

The ore basin is located on the southwestern wing of the Eskul anticline, near the village. Zhezdy. It is composed of Upper Devonian large-pebble conglomerates, arkosic sandstones and siliceous limestones. The basin is divided by the Zhezdy, Karsakbai, Agadyr faults into southwestern, central and northeastern blocks. Ore bodies in the form of layers, lenses, and veins occur in the conglomerates of the Uyta deposits. The basin extends in a northwest direction for 5 km, the thickness varies from N to SE from 120 to 40 m. There are 6 – 7 ore-bearing layers in the geological section. The mineral composition of the ores: brownite, hematite, magnetite, jacobsite, psilomelane, pyrolusite and limonite.

The village is famous for the one-of-a-kind Museum of the History of Mining and Smelting, which reflects all stages of the long history of mining and studying copper shales in Central Kazakhstan. In addition, in the region, near the village Baikonur (not to be confused with the cosmodrome) also has coal seams, which have also been mined since ancient times. The coal was later used for the furnaces of the copper smelter in the village of Zhezdy .

The museum's exposition Is located In the open air on an area of 3 hectares, as well as In exhibition halls with an area of 916.31 sq.m.

The museum’s fund consists of more than 15 thousand exhibits covering the history of mining and smelting, material culture, ethnography and life of the Kazakh people. The museum shows the history of copper mining from the Paleolithic to the present: dioramas, ore samples, a working model of an ancient copper smelting furnace from the settlements of Atasu and Milykuduk (II-I BC) , samples of drilling and tunneling equipment, trains transporting ore, thousands of other valuable and rare exhibits.

Figure 10. – Museum of mining and smelting history, ore samples in the museum yard.

Figure 10. – Museum of mining and smelting history, ore samples in the museum yard.

Figure 11. – Open-air museum: a – dynamo and camshaft, on the right two ladles for casting copper, b – mining machinery in the museum yard.

Figure 11. – Open-air museum: a – dynamo and camshaft, on the right two ladles for casting copper, b – mining machinery in the museum yard.

The pride of the museum is the reconstruction of two Bronze Age furnaces: a cheese-blowing furnace and a crucible furnace, which is a prehistoric “full cycle plant” with all links of the metallurgical chain.

The museum is an educational and educational center that regularly works with school children and students. The house-museum of K.I. Satpaev in the village of Karsakpai and the Museum of the History of Mining and Smelting in the village of Zhezdy form a single historical and cultural complex.

Geological type of geoheritage	Mineralogical, historical-mining-geological, stratigraphic, landscape-geomorphological
Tourist specialization	Industrial, scientific, educational tourism
Rank	5
Accessibility	4
Possibility of independent travel	4
Informational support	5
Preservation	4
Scientific and educational significance	5
Aesthetic appeal ( subjective evaluation )	5
Tourist infrastructure	4

Figure 12. - Copies of petroglyphs from the Terekty-Aulie Gorge and an ancient copper smelting furnace.

Figure 12. - Copies of petroglyphs from the Terekty-Aulie Gorge and an ancient copper smelting furnace.

3.3. Taldysai

North of the village of Zhezdy, 16 km from it, in the tract at the confluence of the Ulken rivers Zhezdy and Bala Zhezdy, near the village of Taldysai there is a metallurgical historical and cultural complex created as part of the Ulytau nature reserve. The ore fields of the Zhezkazgan-Ulytau mining and metallurgical center have been developed since ancient times, but to date, numerous settlements and production sites of Bronze Age miners and metallurgists have been destroyed by geological and industrial quarries. Only a few monuments were outside the zone of industrial development of the region, one of which is the settlement of Taldysai.

This was facilitated by the simple stratal shape of many deposits, large sizes, flat and shallow occurrence of cuprous sandstones and shales, which allows the use of an open method for developing their deposits.

Since 1994, a comprehensive study of the monument has been carried out, including field and laboratory research using natural science methods and experimental modeling. There are many monuments concentrated within a radius of 3-5 km of historical and cultural heritage of different eras from the Paleolithic to the late Middle Ages and ethnographic modernity: Stone Age sites, a settlement of metallurgists and a burial ground of the Bronze Age, a mound “with a mustache” of early nomads, the medieval settlement of Baskamyr, a guardhouse tower, cave, which was inhabited both in antiquity and in the Middle Ages.

The most known to the world scientific community artifacts of Taldysai date back to the Bronze Age: one of the settlements of ancient metallurgists was discovered here, where almost the full cycle of metallurgical production was carried out. This is the smelting of copper from ore, its refining, casting of products and their forging finishing from metallurgically “pure” copper.

Of interest are the discovered ancient mine-type metallurgical furnaces, representing the pits dug down to 2.5 m, used for enrichment and smelting of sulfide ore. Also, ancient metallurgists used small above-ground furnaces for smelting oxidized ores. The smelting furnaces are located next to or inside the dwellings of the ancients, which is evidence of the existence of entire settlements of metallurgists.

A feature of the Late Bronze Age was the formation of craft production in metallurgy. Settlements with a clearly defined metallurgical specialization appeared, sharply increasing the volume of copper smelting production, and other separate specialized structures appeared in settlements (Atasu, Akmustafa, Myrzhik, Taldysai, etc.). At the same time, the technology of metallurgical production itself becomes more sophisticated. It was the commercial production of copper, supplied to the trans-Eurasian trade routes of that era, that was the basic area of functioning of the mining and metallurgical centers of Kazakhstan.

Metallurgical centers similar to those of Taldysai have been found at the sites of northern Betpakdala. In the settlements of Atasu, Akmustafa, Akmaya, Myrzhik, also located in the Ulytau region, archaeologists have identified shaft-type ovens, like those at Taldysai. Thermal engineering structures of the Bronze Age of this type have no analogues outside of Kazakhstan.

Copper items found in the territories of modern Russia, Central Asia and the Balkans are very similar to those found by archaeologists in Taldysai. This became the reason for the hypothesis about the existence of the Copper Road, which originated long before the famous Great Silk Road. Through it, goods made of copper, bronze, silver and gold from the Ulytau-Zhezkazgan region went to Altai, Tarbagatai, all the way to Western Asia and Greece.

Alkei Margulan assumed that with the emergence of the transit Great Silk Road, the Copper Road became one of its branches, supplying metal products to the East and West. Mentions of the Steppe Road are preserved in Herodotus’s “History” (Ankushev M.N., Artemiev D.A., Blinov I.A., 2020; Artyukhova O., Kurmankulov J., Ermolaeva A.S., Erzhanova A., 2013; Ermolaeva A.S., Kuzminykh S.V., Pak J-S., Dubyagina E.V., 2019; Calgaro I., 2020; Park J.-S., 2020).

Geological type of geoheritage	Historical-mining-geological, landscape-geomorphological
Tourist specialization	Scientific, educational tourism
Criteria	grade
Rank	5
Accessibility	3
Possibility of independent travel	3
Informational support	4
Preservation	4
Scientific and educational significance	5
Aesthetic appeal (subjectiveevaluation)	4
Tourist infrastructure	3

Figure 13. – General view of Taldysai settlement (photo by Y. Pirogova) and excavations of metallurgical settlement near Taldysai settlement (photo from https://e-history.kz/ru/news/show/3844).

Figure 13. – General view of Taldysai settlement (photo by Y. Pirogova) and excavations of metallurgical settlement near Taldysai settlement (photo from https://e-history.kz/ru/news/show/3844).

3.5. Ulytau Mountains

Ulytau Mountains represent one of the oldest mountain ranges in Saryarka. They are composed mainly of granites and granodiorites. The massif consists of small lows and ridges stretching from north to south for 200 km. Its highest point is Akmeshit Peak (1131 m) .

Geological type of geoheritage	Mineralogical,historical-mining-geological, stratigraphic, landscape-geomorphological
Tourist specialization	Industrial, scientific, educational tourism, trekking, ethnotourism
Accessibility	5
Possibility of independent travel	5
Informational support	3
Preservation	4
Scientific and educational significance	5
Aesthetic appeal (subjective evaluation)	5
Tourist infrastructure	4

Figure 14. – Ulytau mountains (photo by D. Rugis).

Figure 14. – Ulytau mountains (photo by D. Rugis).

3.5.1. Mount Akmechet-Aulie

Akmechet-Aulie is a mountain in the Ulytau national park, 2 km from the village of Ulytau, the highest point of the Ulytau mountain range, 1131 m high. The mountain is composed of granodiorites Karamenda complex of the Middle Devonian, overlying deposits of alaskite granites of the Orlinogorsk complex. The latter are exposed in a wide massif surrounding the elevated peak of Mount Akmechet.

Figure 15. – The summit of Akmechet-Aulie Mountain (Akmeshit).

Figure 15. – The summit of Akmechet-Aulie Mountain (Akmeshit).

The mountain is an object of pilgrimage and, probably, the mountain had sacred significance already in the Bronze Age, which is confirmed by numerous archaeological sites: mounds, sanctuaries, and fortifications. According to one legend, the burial places of seven holy Sufi healers are located on the mountain. Here are the remains of a square 42x42 m building built from fragments of stone on clay mortar, its foundation made of 30x40 cm granite slabs.

At the very foot of Mount Akmechet-Aulie, a dome of the cave is seen. Its depth is about 2 m. The façade arch of the left wing suffered destruction.

3.5.2. Mount Edige

Edyge Peak, 1063 m high, is located 35 km west of the village of Ulytau. It was named, as the entire mountain, after Edyge bi committed to the earth of the sacred Ulytau at its top. The burial place of Tokhtamysh, the famous khan of the Golden Horde, is also there. The mountain is composed of alaskite granites of the Orlinogorsk complex of the Middle Devonian. Granites, participating in the composition of the massive mountains, are pink-red in color, coarse-crystalline with a characteristic mattress-like structure.

Figure 16. – Mount Yedige.

Figure 16. – Mount Yedige.

3.5.3. Arganaty Mountains

Represent a low mountain range located north of the Ulytau Mountains and extend for 80 km. The highest point is Mount Dondygul (757 m). The northern part of the ridge is composed of Proterozoic rocks, and Devonian and Carboniferous deposits are exposed on the southern slope. Numerous tributaries of the Karatorgai, Sarytorgai, Kara- Kengir, and Teris-Akkan rivers originate from the Arganaty Mountains. In the west there are lakes Koskol, Kamystykol, in the east lakes Barakkol, Kurkol, Basbaital. There are many springs in the mountains, the water of which is considered healing. The slopes of the mountains are steppe, covered with feather grass, fescue, wormwood, meadowsweet, and various other shrubs.

Figure 17. – Arganaty Mountain Range (https://silkadv.com/en/content/gornaya-gryada-arganaty, by D. Rugis, A.Seidali).

Figure 17. – Arganaty Mountain Range (https://silkadv.com/en/content/gornaya-gryada-arganaty, by D. Rugis, A.Seidali).

3.6. Cave of Keiki Batyr

Is located in a picturesque place near the Karatorgai River on the northern border of the Ulytau region, 6 km from the village of Korgasyn. In structure and size, Keiki Batyr’s cave resembles a grotto: low walls made of stones and a relatively narrow space inside. It is composed of carbonate rocks of the late Paleozoic.

Figure 18. – Keiki Batyr's cave on the Karaturgai River.

Figure 18. – Keiki Batyr's cave on the Karaturgai River.

3.7. Lead Mines

Old lead mines are located north of the village of Korgasyn on the opposite bank of the Karatorgai River. Lead has been mined here since ancient times by local, Russian and English industrialists. An interesting tourist site with access to sunlight into underground mines.

Figure 19. - Old lead mines (photo by D. Rugis).

Figure 19. - Old lead mines (photo by D. Rugis).

4. Discussion

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