1. Introduction

2. Statement of Problem of the Study

3. Objectives

• To investigate the trends of Africa on the implementation of STEM education and 4IR in their education system at higher education.
• To elaborate on the challenges to Africa that hinder to implementation of STEM education and 4IR in their education system at higher education.
• To suggest the future supposed gate/path/ of Africa to be familiar with the STEM education and 4IR in the education system at higher education.

4. Research Questions

• What are the trends of Africa with the implementation of both STEM education and 4IR in their education system at higher education?
• What are the challenges and opportunities for Africa to implement STEM education and 4IR in their education system at higher education?
• What are the future supposed gate/path/ of Africa to implement STEM education and 4IR in the education system (forecasting of the matter)?

5. Significance of the Study

6. Review Literature

1.1.6.1. Trends of Implementation of STEM Education and 4IR in the Education System in Africa

In this section, we need to define the term revolution and paradigm. The two terms are defined by the known scholar Thomas Kuhn to mean gradual changes of science and world views respectively in the world(Kuhn, 1996). Kuhn argued that a scientific revolution is a non-cumulative developmental episode in which an older paradigm is replaced in whole or in part by an incompatible new one. Over the past few decades, the world has experienced multiple industrial revolutions, and each one has had an impact on the nation's educational system(Deliwe, 2021). 4IR has become the driving force for integrating technology in the classroom instruction for improving higher education worldwide. Not just in science but in every aspect of human existence, revolutions take place. In science education and related fields, the potentially revolutionary times concerning various proposals for STEM education were emerged and will emerge also. STEM education is the basis of the appearances of 4IR(Mkwanazi & Mbohwa, 2018) and can be considered as a site(Nxumalo & Gitari, 2021). As to Ethiopia, it is named as the center.

To this effect, in South Africa, one university was found to have made significant progress in training 4IR skills for industrial engineers(Kayembe & Nel, 2019). In the same fashion, in Rwanda, engineering education has provided skilled personnel for industry and solutions for local development problems and the Swedish university boosts the human power(considered as the benchmark) and quality of STEM education in African countries are poor (Ismail, 2018). Hence, to us, as STEM education is the base for 4IR and STEM is not a novel topic, as the concepts have been promoted since 1990,4IR is also poor in African countries and the indicator of this assertion is that Africa has started its digital transformation by the end of the 1990s where it has begun by the mobile or telecommunications revolution(Adam, 2019; Ismail, 2018).

As to the 4IR, STEM education does have some revolutionary character(McComas & Burgin, 2020). To this end, new proposals were given as mixing a topic such as art into STEM to create STEAM. (Aguilera & Ortiz-Revilla, 2021); or combine STEM with law to create STEMLE; or combine STEM and reading to create the hybrid STREAM (McComas & Burgin, 2020, p. 817). They also fear the problem arises because of teaching students by merging engineering and sciences in the classroom while they reviewed their literature, however, concludes as the “links between science elements of mathematics, engineering, and, perhaps to a lesser extent, technology may be helpful” (p.825). Moreover, in developed countries for instance “various US cities, schools labeled as failing are being repurposed as selective STEM-intensive academies to build a STEM education infrastructure”(C. Bullock, 2017). STEM is an educational methodology that is now accompanied by the STEAM the combination of STEM and arts[in terms of student's creativity within the classroom and outsides of the classroom(T. B. Bedada, 2021; T. B. Bedada & Machaba, 2022a)] modification(Aguilera & Ortiz-Revilla, 2021). However, some scholar starts with a question to define STEM as “Is STEM a new teaching approach or a philosophy?” In the author's words,it's possible that this is due to the lack of widely acknowledged definitions for STEM education and the lack of specific ways for implementing them (Bybee, 2010). Bybee (2010) explains that when children ask questions about how tools, equipment, or anything else we use works, what advantages technology brings to our lives to make it function, and how to motivate them to be intrigued, STEM is being taught correctly. Depending on the literature, STEM is coined in the 4IR. Moreover, it known that engineering is directly involved in making innovations and solving problems. In addition the scholar(SARICA, 2020) claims that STEM education, which combines science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, is a comprehensive strategy that is becoming more and more popular and is crucial for nations to compete and stand out in the 21st-century global economy. This expert disagrees, arguing that STEM education is only used in the United States of America (USA) and that STEM curriculum reform is used in many other countries.(Lai, 2018).

Many countries are increasing their attention on STEM in schools and the workforce, with its important significance across numerous industries becoming explicitly recognized(English, 2015). Having a problem of understanding and implementing STEM education in the classroom some organization tries to establish a center known as Experimento and STEM power and prepare Forum [PASET Forum]. Here, I am interested to discuss the trends of the three ideas such as Experimento and STEM power and preparing Forum [PASET Forum].

Figure 1. Countries implemented Experimento in Africa and continent in the world.

Figure 1. Countries implemented Experimento in Africa and continent in the world.

Experimento is founded on the idea of inquiry-based learning, which views kids and teenagers as active participants in their education. They ask questions, use a variety of techniques to find answers, consider what they've learned, and compile the findings on their own. The young researchers discover that their efforts result in achievement, which is an important and inspirational lesson that increases a child's self-confidence. It also implies that education is not confined to the classroom and that learning should be applied to real-world situations, reexamined material, and generated outside of the classroom. The course of study Experimento is more than just learning science and technology; it was designed with values in mind in collaboration with Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität (LMU) in Munich. Age-appropriate, multi-tiered STEM classes that emphasize cooperative learning, problem-solving techniques, and the capacity to take action should be centered upon social and personal values. Conscientiousness and activism for the environment, the natural world, and a sustainable future are examples of societal values that are promoted.

STEM power provides hands-on STEM enrichment in sub-Saharan countries such as Ethiopia, South Sudan, Kenya, Tanzania, Somaliland, Cameroon, Ghana, South Africa, and Zimbabwe. Of these countries, I am interested in dealing with STEM power in Ethiopia trends. STEM power in According to STEM power, Ethiopia has made every attempt to advance STEM education in order to empower women and produce a new generation of young people who can solve problems. For the benefit of thousands of bright engineers and scientists who have the opportunity to present their inventions to both the country and the globe, STEM power and the Ethiopian Ministry of Education have been collaborating on the national competition. For Ethiopia, the issue of youth unemployment has been quite problematic. According to the country's Job Creation Commission, there will be a 14 million job deficit by 2025. This has led to the creation of a national plan aimed at fostering a thriving private sector by providing assistance to medium-sized and micro enterprises. STEM power has made numerous attempts to create jobs. For example, STEM Power and VISA, the global leader in digital payments, have partnered to support Ethiopia's ambition to create jobs by helping young innovators launch and expand their technically focused small and medium-sized businesses.

Discussion on the 5^th PASET FORUM Africa country intends to do the following actions to accomplish 4IR(PASET Forum, 2019): -

• From the Ethiopian government
  •  There has been an expansion of the TVET sector and growth in higher education institutes in Ethiopia.
  •  An enabling ICT policy with institutional arrangements to implement is important to have an ICT-driven country as well as a knowledge-based economy.
  •  Ethiopia is currently well connected in terms of coverage and several sectors are adopting digital technologies from agriculture to finance. However, TVET schools and some universities still have poor connectivity.
  •  There is a national depository system for educational materials as well as digital libraries in some universities. Several digital courses (e.g., from author observation Mathematical software for Mathematics students was added, etc.) have been added to curricula and all students take a course in emerging technologies (for freshman Ethiopian university students) to prepare the youth. Universities also have incubation centers.

To sum up, the speaker from Ethiopia on PASET FORUM did not say anything about 4IR directly. Ethiopia is limited in its ability to implement and develop the fourth knowledge wave(Kim, 2020).

b.

From the Guinea government

•  There is political commitment to keep up with the 4IR.
•  Guinea has formed the Guinea Technology Valley that emulates Silicon Valley.
•  Guinea is promoting a technology-led education system hence several reforms are ongoing: key sectors like agriculture and mining are being focused on for digital transformation; fiber optic is being laid out across the country; training programs are being initiated in various sectors; curricula have been adapted to match companies' needs; all high schools have electronic communications, and there are virtual libraries in some universities.
•  Challenges in the country include access to wide-scale internet, human resource issues, and funding

c.

From the Tanzania Government

•  Several initiatives such as an ICT policy and corresponding pillars for infrastructure, human capital development etc. have been introduced.
•  The government has laid 7500 km of fibre optics and an additional 20,000 km will be built to cover the last mile solution.
•  Curricula are being revised to reflect the needs of the 4IR, such as IoT, AI as well as 3D technologies in TVET. e-Libraries have been established from primary to higher learning institutions.
•  Connectivity has been improved in higher learning institutions using the Ubuntu service.
•  Challenges that the country faces include human capital capacity and funding. The way forward involves increased collaboration, charting new ways to get funding and reviewing the policy roadmap for the 4IR.

d.

From the Rwanda government

•  Human skills are critical to leverage the 4IR and Rwanda has placed a great deal of effort in this area considering the country's history where education was segregationally based on ethnic backgrounds.
•  Education and training are considered as the main driver for Rwanda's development. Several policies and initiatives have been put in place including initiatives to promote new pedagogy and assessment required by the 4IR, promotion of Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) programs and enhancement of English language proficiency.
•  University of Rwanda has been reformed and merged to raise academic quality as well as to avoid duplication of resources. The same merging policy has also been enacted in TVET colleges which have been merged into Rwanda Polytechnic.
•  Rwanda has been getting ready for the 4IR since 2000.
•  The journey started with the formation of an ICT policy and institutional arrangements, hard core infrastructure such as fibre optics, use of secured and shared infrastructure, and finally implementing the Smart Rwanda master plan. Currently, the Rwanda Coding Academy has been launched to address readiness for the 4IR.
•  Rwanda has established a regulatory framework as an enabler for digital transformation. There is a need for smart and dynamic regulations and guidelines. With the 4IR, change is rapid and hence, there is a need for continuous revision.
•  Efforts are being made to provide flexible guidelines in cybersecurity and data privacy.
•  Rwanda is active at the international level in standardization issues related to the 4IR.
•  There are special provisions for companies in critical sectors such as transport by issuing licences.

In general, the countries involved on PASET Forum talked about the understandings of 4IR, on the challenges and opportunities in the past, past in the present, future, and future in the present directly except Ethiopia.

6.2. Challenges and Opportunities to Africa Countries that Hinders to Implement STEM Education and 4IR in their Education System

6.2.1. Challenges to African Countries

One common issue in many African nations has been the accessibility of 4IR technologies. The cost of devices and connection services like the internet, as well as the caliber of the connectivity infrastructure, are frequently linked to access problems. The digital gap is a result of extremes in access to technology, typical for individuals living in towns and cities compared to the bulk of those living in rural areas.

With the development and deployment of new technology, the 4IR has its own set of risks. According to (Schwab, 2016), it is unknown how the 4IR will manifest, but one certain thing is that a response to it must be coherent and inclusive of all interested parties in the nation's institutions, ranging from business and public sectors to educational and public society. It takes careful planning to mitigate these hazards. Additionally, new procedures and systems for risk management will need to be put in place. This suggests that emerging technologies have the power to improve the way people live. The world must not, however, ignore the risks and downsides of these recent advancements in technology. According to (Kayembe & Nel, 2019), inequality and income distribution are among the risks associated with 4IR for education among South Africans, and they also forecast that STEM curriculum should be reconsidered as a new method in 4IR.

Many African countries have limitations to develop even though they have ‘latent comparative advantages’ because of no infrastructure for 4IR(Kim, 2020). Africa's continued challenges with availability and affordability of bandwidth and noted that this is the time for Africa to catalyse its transformation through the utilization of 4IR technologies, which will entail reforming the education system, and strong leadership and commitment(PASET Forum, 2019).

One of the elements of 4IR is IoTs which deals with is a novel paradigm that is rapidly gaining ground in the scenario of modern wireless telecommunications. Ethiopia, on the other hand, currently only has the infrastructure to use basic to intermediate cloud computing applications (internet) (e.g., email, web browsing, and video conferencing) (Banga & te Velde, 2018). Ethiopia's sector faces additional hurdles from irregular electrical supplies, logistical impediments, and illicit activities. ICT is generally in its infancy in the majority of African nations(Barakabitze et al., 2019). The issues that arose in South Africa's higher education were inadequate use of technology, weak reasoning and logic skills, and low reading and literacy skills(Yande, 2021).

Due to deficiencies in its educational system, which restrict the availability of managers, inadequate infrastructure, which reflects weak governance, and state capture, South Africa suffers from a severe skills shortage that affects researchers and workers needed for 4IR (Sutherland, 2019). Generally speaking, developing nations have not been able to fully benefit from the first three industrial revolutions due to a variety of circumstances, including geography, governmental structure, and a lack of infrastructure and technical know-how(Ally & Wark, 2020). Particularly when it comes to implementing policies across departments, it has a dismal track record. There have also been noticeable delays in cybersecurity and data protection. Hence, the lack of STEM education in Ethiopia is the problem of implementation strategies, lack of a national scheme, uneven implementation, and variations in the creation of STEM education centers (Tamrat, 2021).

The examination focuses on the disruption of societal values and restructuring of the economy, poor infrastructural development, lack of skills capacity to integrate new technologies, fear of losing jobs, poverty, and inequalities that threaten the success of the implementation of 4IR(Shava & Hofisi, 2017; Yande, 2021).

Though notable and swift technological progress holds promise for bettering human lives, it also gives rise to anxieties about the future, particularly for those seeking employment(Morgan, 2019; Zervoudi, 2020). One of the biggest fears related to the new technologies is that robots and artificial intelligence will replace the human factor in work leading to “technological unemployment”(Zervoudi, 2020, p. 1). This is not the first time that technological advancement has been viewed as a danger to people's jobs.

6.2.2. Opportunities to Ethiopia

Following the election of Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed (Ph.D.), Ethiopia's government implemented a homegrown economic growth policy centered on the privatization of state-owned businesses, including hotels, industrial parks, sugar development plants, railroad projects, and other manufacturing industries. The decision was also taken to partially permit minimum shares in state-owned businesses, including the Ethiopian Shipping and Logistics Services Enterprise, Ethio-Telecom, Ethiopian Airlines, and electricity generation projects. The availability of new technologies and the political will to test them out indicate that there is a present high level of interest in and spending on technology for education. Ethiopia is among the nations where education requires technology in order to lead to wealth in the eyes of the government. The newly established Artificial Intelligence (AI) Center, one of 4IR, for example, recently signed Memorandums of Understanding with five institutions (including Zewditu Memorial Hospital, Addis Ababa Institute of Technology, Addis Ababa Science and Technology University, National Meteorology Agency, and Oromia Cooperative Bank) to collaborate on the development of artificial intelligence products and services that will improve the public's protection and safety as well as the health, education, agriculture, and transportation sectors. It is clearly identified without research that the environmental disaster by itself forces the world to use the technology. Even though Ethiopia is one of the countries that are facing with many problems on the implementation of 4IR, the Ministry of Education (MOE) has begun projects to improve and introduce technology to alleviate chronic problems faced in the educational sector. As to the Ethiopian government, 4IR is the revolution that can solve a society's problems, for example in the educational sector. The following figure indicates how the project aims to transform Ethiopian educational sectors.

Figure 2. Ethiopia Digital Technology for educational sector transformation (adopted from MOE, Ethiopia web pages).

Figure 2. Ethiopia Digital Technology for educational sector transformation (adopted from MOE, Ethiopia web pages).

In addition to this, the Ethiopian government identified the problem of a country’s education system and developed a new education system known as the Ethiopian educational road map which aims to cultivate a society of the 21^st century(Teferra et al., 2018).

7. Theoretical Underpinning

8. Research Methodology

9. Discussion and Findings

9.2. Challenges of Africa to Implement STEM Education and 4IR:(SIB Challenges)

The study finds three major challenges as factors of STEM education and 4IR implementation in the continent. These three broad factors are human skills, infrastructures, and Resources[budget] or in short SIB factors which align with the findings of (Kayembe & Nel, 2019). According to some academics, the number of job seekers not only in Africa as a globe has increased as human labor is replaced by machines, and some jobs are offshored because of robotization, autonomous driving, dematerialization which may be considered as a factor(Kim, 2020).

10. Conclusions

11. Recommendation

References

1. Adam, H. Adam, H. (2019). The Digital Revolution in Africa: Opportunities and Hurdles. SSRN Electronic Journal, 239–267. [CrossRef]
2. Aguilera, D., & Ortiz-Revilla, J. (2021). Stem vs. Steam education and student creativity: A systematic literature review. Education Sciences, 11(7). [CrossRef]
3. Alakrash, H. M., & Razak, N. A. (2021). Education and the fourth industrial revolution: Lessons from COVID-19. Computers, Materials and Continua, 70(1), 951–962. [CrossRef]
4. Ally, M., & Wark, N. (2020). Sustainable Development and Education in the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR).
5. Augusto Couto Barone, D., Antonio Zaro, M., & de Musacchio, C. (2016). Delocalization and Spatialization of the Classroom: Deterritorialization in Education. American Journal of Educational Research, 3(11), 1417–1428. [CrossRef]
6. Banga, K., & te Velde, D. W. (2018). Digitalisation and the Future of Manufacturing in Africa.
7. Barakabitze, A. A., Lazaro, A. W.-A., Ainea, N., Mkwizu, M. H., Maziku, H., Matofali, A. X., Iddi, A., & Sanga, C. (2019). Transforming african education systems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) using ICTs: Challenges and opportunities. Education Research International. [CrossRef]
8. Bedada, T. (2021). The use and effect of Geogebra software in Calculus at Wachemo University, Ethiopia: an investigation. https://uir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/28477.
9. Bedada, T. B. (2021). The use and effect of GeoGebra Software in Calculus at Wachemo University,Ethiopia:An investigation. Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in Mathematics Education at the University of South Africa (UNISA).
10. Bedada, T. B., & Machaba, F. (2022a). The effect of GeoGebra on STEM students learning trigonometric functions. Cogent Education, 9(1), 1–18. [CrossRef]
11. Bedada, T. B., & Machaba, F. (2022b). University lecturers’ preparedness to use technology in teacher training of mathematics during COVID-19: The case of Ethiopia. South African Journal of Higher Education, 36(1).
12. Bybee, R. W. (2010). What is STEM education? Science, 329(5995), 996. [CrossRef]
13. C. Bullock, E. (2017). Only STEM Can Save Us? Examining Race, Place, and STEM Education as Property. Educational Studies, 53(6), 628–641. [CrossRef]
14. Davis, F. D. (1989). Perceived usefulness,perceived ease of use,and user acceptance of information technology. MIS Quarterly, 13(3), 319–340. [CrossRef]
15. Deliwe, A. P. (2021). The fourth industrial revolution and higher education in africa: A systematic review and implications. Proceedings of the European Conference on E-Learning, ECEL, 2018, 130–138. [CrossRef]
16. English, L. D. (2015). STEM: Challenges and Opportunities for Mathematics Education. 4–18.
17. Fomunyam, K. G. (2020). Assessment of Students’ Data Literacy Skills in Southern Nigerian Universities. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 8(6), 2717–2726. [CrossRef]
18. Ismail, Z. (2018). Benefits of STEM education. K4D Helpdesk Report, 1–14.
19. Kayembe, C., & Nel, D. (2019). Challenges and opportunities for education in the Fourth Industrial Revolution. African Journal of Public Affairs, 11(3), 79–94.
20. Kim, D. H. (2020). A Study on Preparation and Strategy Building for 4th Knowledge Wave of African Country (Focusing on AI). International Journal of Economics and Management Studies, 7(7), 57–79. [CrossRef]
21. Kuhn, T. S. (1996). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (3rd ed.). The University of Chicago Press.
22. Lai, C. (2018). Using Inquiry-Based Strategies for Enhancing Students’ STEM Education Learning. Journal of Education in Science, Environment and Health, 4(1), 110–117. [CrossRef]
23. Machaba, F., & Bedada, T. B. (2022). Mathematics Educators’ Readiness for Online Education in the Fourth Industrial Revolution: A Case of Two Selected Universities in Ethiopia. In B. Chirinda, K. Luneta, & A. Uworwabayeho (Eds.), Mathematics Education in Africa:The Fourth Industrial Revolution. Springer Nature. [CrossRef]
24. Mamphiswana, R., & Bekele, M. (2020). The fourth industrial revolution: Prospects and challenges for Africa. International Association for Management of Technology IAMOT 2020 Conference Proceedings.
25. Mathekga, H. L., & Sekudu, J. (2019). Employee Wellness: Preparation for the Fourth Industrial Revolution. International Journal of Innovative Studies in Sociology and Humanities (IJISSH), 4(5), 31–39. www.ijissh.org.
26. McComas, W. F., & Burgin, S. R. (2020). A Critique of “ STEM ” Education. Science & Education, 29(1), 805–829. [CrossRef]
27. McDonald, C. (2016). STEM Education: A Review of the Contribution of the Disciplines of Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics. Science Education International, 27(4), 530–569.
28. Mhlanga, D., & Moloi, T. (2020). COVID-19 and the digital transformation of education: What are we learning on 4IR in South Africa? Education Sciences, 10(7), 180.
29. Mishra, P., & Koehler, M. J. (2006). Technological pedagogical content knowledge: A framework for teacher knowledge. In Teachers College Record (Vol. 108, Issue 6, pp. 1017–1054). Teachers College, Columbia University. [CrossRef]
30. Mkwanazi, S., & Mbohwa, C. (2018). Implications of the 4th industrial revolution on entrepreneurship education. Proceedings of the International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations Management, SEP, 318–328.
31. Morgan, J. (2019). Will we work in twenty-first century capitalism? A critique of the fourth industrial revolution literature. Economy and Society, 48(3), 371–398. [CrossRef]
32. Nxumalo, F., & Gitari, W. (2021). Introduction to the Special Theme on Responding to Anti-Blackness in Science, Mathematics, Technology and STEM Education. Canadian Journal of Science, Mathematics and Technology Education, 21(2), 226–231. [CrossRef]
33. Oke, A., & Fernandes, F. A. P. (2020). Innovations in teaching and learning: Exploring the perceptions of the education sector on the 4th industrial revolution (4IR). Journal of Open Innovation:Technology,Market,and Complexity, 6(1), 31.
34. Oyekunle, A. A. (2021). Ideating African Indigenous Knowledge Systems for Africa’s Participation in the 4IR: From Content Framework to Process Formation. Filosofia Theoretica, 10(3), 29–44. [CrossRef]
35. PASET Forum. (2019). Destination digital Africa:Preparing our youth for future (Vol. 48, Issue 10).
36. Rogers, E. M. (2003). Diffusion of Innovations (B. Wallace (ed.); Fifth edit).
37. SARICA, R. (2020). Analysis of Postgraduate Theses Related to STEM Education in Turkey: A Meta-Synthesis Study. Acta Didactica Napocensia, 13(2), 1–29. [CrossRef]
38. Schwab, K. (2016). The Fourth Industrial Revolution: what it means and how to respond. World Economic Forum, 1–7.
39. Shava, E., & Hofisi, C. (2017). Challenges and Opportunities for Public Administration in the Fourth Industrial Revolution. African Journal of Public Affairs, 9(9), 203–2015. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322676701%0AChallenges.
40. Sutherland, E. (2019). The Fourth Industrial Revolution–The Case of South Africa. Politikon. [CrossRef]
41. Tamrat, W. (2021). STEM centres can elevate interest in science. https://www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=20210301071607880.
42. Teferra, T., Asgedom, A., Oumer, J., W/hanna, T., Dalelo, A., & Assefa, B. (2018). Ethiopian Education Development Roadmap (2018-30) (Issue July). http://planipolis.iiep.unesco.org/sites/planipolis/files/ressources/ethiopia_education_development_roadmap_2018-2030.pdf.
43. Thoti, K. K. (2024). Exploring the employees’ behavioral intention towards disruptive technologies: A study in Malaysia. Human Resources Management and Services, 6(1), 1–16. [CrossRef]
44. Venkatesh, V., Sam, Thong, J. Y. L., & Xu, X. (2012). Consumer Acceptance and Use of Information Technology: Extending the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology. Management Information Systems Research Center, University of Minnesota Stable, 36(1), 157–178. [CrossRef]
45. Ventresca, M. J., & Mohr, J. W. (2001). Archival Research Methods. In The Blackwell Companion to Organizations. [CrossRef]
46. Yande, S. J. (2021). A Transition towards the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) in the South African Education Sector: A Perspective from Rural-based Higher Education. African Journal of Development Studies, 11(2).
47. Zervoudi, E. K. (2020). Fourth industrial revolution: opportunities, challenges, and proposed policies. In Industrial Robotics-New Paradigms (pp. 1–25). IntechOpen. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/C7RA00172J%0Ahttps://www.intechopen.com/books/advanced-biometric-technologies/liveness-detection-in-biometrics%0Ahttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2011.12.014.