Policy Failure in Plastic Ban Enforcement: A Political Economy Perspective on Regulatory Implementation Barriers of Section 6A of the Environmental Conservation Act, 1995

Plastics are extensively used globally because of their light weight, high durability, adaptability, ease of manufacturing, and reduced production costs compared with other comparable materials (Angriani et al. (2021). The global production of plastics was only 1.5 MT in 1950, which increased 215 times higher in 2015 with 322 MT (Banu 2019, Barnes 2002). Moreover, it has been predicted that the global production of plastic waste will be 670 MT in 2040 (Delangiz et al., 2022; Mugobo et al., 2022). The plastics industry is expanding swiftly in Asia, which is presently the largest producer in the globe (Kadusic, 2021; Karayilan et al., 2021). The ever-increasing use and waste of plastic has transformed the most alluring aspects of marine and terrestrial ecosystems into a curse(Barrowclough and Birkbeck, 2022,Mai et al. 2024). Due to its destructive effects on ecosystems, the majesty of the oceans, and the livelihoods of marine animals, pollution has been a significant concern over the past decade. Since the majority of plastics are intended for one-time use, half of all plastic waste is packaging materials (UNEP, 2018; Mwaza & Mbohwa, 2017). Moreover, only nine percent of these nine billion tons of plastic have been recycled (UNEP, 2018,World Bank 2021). The same holds true for Bangladesh (Majumder et al., 2020). After Bangladesh's 1971 liberation war, the older commercial district of the city of Dhaka became home to a flourishing plastics manufacturing industry that exported $477 million in the most recent fiscal year. However, because it has no domestic polyolefin industry, the country must import its basic materials (Bharadwaj et al. 2020, Debnath et al., 2023). There are still many large and minor plastics factories operating in the country. There were approximately 5,000 plastics-related enterprises in Bangladesh in 2016. During the previous two decades, factories expanded at a rate of over twenty percent annually. Due to the detrimental effects of their manufacturing and recycling processes and the hazardous residues, these industries fall under the group of Orange B (Environmental Conservation Rules, 1997) category industries. Due to the potential dangers they pose to human life and the environment, the ECR 1997 requires that these enterprises maintain a significant distance from residential areas and protected areas. These factories must be located in industrial zones, areas with a high concentration of industry, or undeveloped land. However, the larger portion of these businesses are located in such areas within Dhaka, creating an intriguing blend of residential and commercial communities. In addition, these enterprises will receive a Location Clearance Certificate and an Environmental Clearance Certificate in that order. These businesses require a certificate of no objection from the local authority, an emergency plan for negative environmental impacts, reports on the feasibility of the industrial unit, the Initial Environmental Examination of the industrial unit, the design of the Effluent Treatment Plant (ETP), and the environmental management of the industrial unit. After completing the aforementioned tasks, these companies must apply for an Environmental Clearance Certificate; without this clearance certificate, they will be denied access to the gas line, unable to begin test operation in the industrial unit, and thus unable to run the project at all (Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act, 1995). The government of Bangladesh has made it illegal to produce, import, market, sell, demonstrate for sale, stock, distribute, commercially carry, or use any polythene shopping bag or other material made of polypropylene or polyethylene, or any other good that is harmful to the environment. This provision was added to the Bangladesh Environmental Conservation Act in 2002. Despite the prohibition, plastic bags are again widely accessible throughout the nation. The government has established a three-year action plan for enforcing the prohibition, but it has yet to be executed. The amended rule states that anybody caught using a banned polythene bag would face a penalty of Tk50,000 to 10 lakh or imprisonment of 1 year up to 10 years, or both (Barrowclough & Birkbeck, 2022). Despite these regulations, plastic factories operate freely across the country with little to no oversight. Therefore, it is obvious that these laws seem to exist just on paper, are not properly implemented, and there is no monitoring to determine whether these rules are being followed or not. While there may be numerous explanations for the lack of follow-through and oversight, the scope of this study will be limited to political considerations. Although there is a significant amount of research on the environmental consequences of polyethylene bag bans, there is a clear lack of studies focusing on the unique economic challenges associated with implementing these bans, especially in the context of Bangladesh. Polyethene bag bans have mostly been studied with a focus on environmental consequences, consumer behavior, and policy design aspects (Frias & Nash, 2019; Islam et al., 2018; Bharadwaj et al., 2020). Previous literature has tried to point the way for future research into possible options to SUPs that pollute nearby environments and ways to fix the damage they cause (Barnes, 2002,Ogutu et al. 2023, Paletta et al. 2019).Another study showed that using polythene bags is becoming more popular every day, even though some of the people surveyed said that plastic goods are bad for the environment. The findings from Banu (2020) shows that public motives combined with stricter enforcement, self-regulation, and monitoring may help reduce SUP pollution. Moreover, Varkey et al. (2021) stated that the enormous public interest in SUP reduction and the companies are concerned about identifying sustainable alternatives. It is found that the polyethene ban is appropriate and beneficial for the country since it has more positive effects than negative ones(Delangiz et al. 2022, Ganeshkumar et al., 2009, Swedish Environmental Protection Agency 2019, Muposhi et al. 2022). In order to reduce the waste of plastics, focus should be made upon the difficulties in replacing natural raw materials and changing industrial methods. Semi-structured interviews reveal that, in order to facilitate easier transitions before taking legislative action, decision makers should step up their efforts to improve consumer knowledge and standardize legislation across jurisdictions (Molloy et al., 2022,Ogushi and Kandlikar 2007). One study finds out that in order to decrease the number of plastic bags used in the community, either raise the price of plastic bags or find alternatives that are less harmful to the environment, including using shopping baskets or bags or eco-friendly plastic bags (Angriani et al., 2021). According to a recent research, plastic contaminants were found in 81% of tap water samples collected globally. This suggests that the people of Bangladesh may be consuming anywhere from 3000 to 4000 microparticles of plastic from tap water each year (Nadiruzzaman et al., 2022). However, there has been a lack of focus on the economic obstacles impeding the effectiveness of these restrictions in Bangladesh. There is a scarcity of research on the economic obstacles related to the prohibition of polyethene bags and the entrepreneurial prospect of sustainable alternatives (Naher and Ebeh, 2024). By scrutinizing the reasons behind the existing compliance landscape, the study contributes to the growing body of knowledge on effective environmental governance and regulatory enforcement. Moreover, the findings of this research are not merely evaluative; they are a catalyst for change. By shedding light on the strengths and weaknesses of governmental interventions and responses, the study aims to propose innovative strategies. These strategies will be instrumental in enhancing the environmental performance of plastic manufacturing industries in Dhaka, ultimately fostering a sustainable balance between economic growth and environmental preservation. In essence, this study is not just about Dhaka's plastic industry; it is a crucial exploration into the delicate interplay between economic development, environmental responsibility, and governmental efficacy. The insights gained will not only benefit Bangladesh but will contribute valuable lessons to the broader discourse on sustainable industrial practices globally. Moreover, this research aims to address this lack of understanding by conducting a comprehensive analysis of the economic barriers that have hindered the enforcement of the Polyethene Bag ban in Bangladesh since 2002.

The primary study area is Bangladesh, as the topic focuses on the national implementation of a polyethene bag ban. However, the specific area of this study is Dhaka, Bangladesh. This study adopted a comprehensive research methodology, integrating both qualitative and quantitative approaches, to thoroughly collect, process, analyze, and interpret data concerning plastic pollution. The methodology encompasses an exhaustive review of relevant literature, examination of key governmental policies, a structured field survey utilizing questionnaires, in-depth Key Informant Interviews (KII) conducted face-to-face with a semi-structured questionnaire, and the utilization of Geographic Information System (GIS) for spatial analysis. The data collection process involved both primary and secondary sources and the time period of data collection spanned from mid to late 2024.

The study design and area of the research is displayed in the figures below:

For the primary data collection, a structured survey questionnaire was meticulously prepared. The following steps outline the procedure for gathering primary data:

The secondary data collection involved obtaining information from the following sources:

To achieve the study objectives, an extensive content analysis was conducted, delving into relevant national and international sources. The literature sources encompassed:

In this study, 8 face-to-face Key Informant Interviews were conducted with experts and professionals between July and September 2024. The KII employed a semi-structured questionnaire to gather in-depth insights into plastic pollution, waste management practices, and policy implications. Maximum variation purposive sampling is a non-random sampling technique aimed at capturing a broad range of perspectives and experiences within a given population. In this study, this method was employed for Key Informant Interviews (KII). The process involved deliberately selecting participants who varied significantly in relevant characteristics, ensuring diversity and comprehensive insights into the plastic pollution landscape in Bangladesh. Key factors influencing the selection included expertise in environmental policy, waste management, and representatives from the environmental organizations and personnel involved in environmental research.

The survey was conducted using a stratified sampling method to ensure representation from various demographics. The structured questionnaire focused on assessing public perceptions, behaviors, and awareness regarding plastic use and disposal. The survey took place from August to September 2024. Krejcie and Morgan's sample size determination formula is a widely used method for selecting a representative sample in survey research. The formula calculates the minimum required sample size based on the total population size and desired level of confidence. In this study, Krejcie's formula was applied to determine the appropriate sample size for the online survey. Krejcie and Morgan's sample size determination formula is a widely used method for selecting a representative sample in survey research. The formula calculates the minimum required sample size based on the total population size and desired level of confidence. In this study, Krejcie's formula was applied to determine the appropriate sample size for the online survey.

The formula is as follows:

This survey was conducted with a sample size (n) of 100 individuals drawn from a total population (N) of 135. The study aimed to estimate population parameters with a high level of confidence, set at 95%, as indicated by the value of X² of 1.96. The margin of error (E) was chosen to be 0.05, representing the acceptable level of variability in the estimated values. Additionally, the estimated proportion of the population with the characteristic of interest (P) is assumed to be 0.5, signifying the maximum variability and, consequently, yielding the maximum required sample size.

Statistical tools, including SPSS v.26.0 and Microsoft Excel, were employed for the analysis of both Key Informant Interview responses and online survey data. The analysis included statistical regression and correlation models, presenting relationships in tabular and graphical formats. This robust analysis aimed to identify patterns, trends, and correlations within the collected data, facilitating a comprehensive understanding of the current landscape of plastic pollution and public attitudes towards it.

The aim of this study was to identify the political and economic barriers for implementing plastic ban law 2002 in Bangladesh. The findings of this study indicated the use of polythene bags could be attributed to the limited availability of alternative materials and their widespread accessibility. The elevated cost of other options is also a contributing factor. The affordability and widespread accessibility of polyethylene bags contribute to their popularity. The implementation of a substantial tax on single-use plastic (SUP) bags from the outset of manufacturing, along with the promotion of innovative strategies and investments in the development of polyethylene alternatives, as well as efforts to induce changes in consumer behavior, may lead to the eventual success of a ban on polyethylene bags. The practice of individuals bringing their own polythene bags is a widely used method for minimizing the utilization of polythene materials. The objective is to enhance end user knowledge on the negative consequences of plastic use via media advertisements and initiatives conducted by governmental and non-governmental organizations. The implementation of a reward-based plastic collecting program is proposed as a means to incentivize individuals to refrain from indiscriminately disposing of plastic garbage in various locations. The proposed incentives include preferential tax treatments, simplified access to bank loans, and duty-free imports of equipment and machinery for industries and enterprises involved in the creation of biodegradable alternatives to plastics. In an integrated fashion, these findings culminate in recommendations for strengthening regional waste management, aligning local policies with global initiatives, tailoring educational programs based on demographic insights, and implementing Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) more rigorously. However, it is crucial to acknowledge the study's limitations, including potential biases in self-reported survey data and the relatively short duration of the household-based analysis. As Bangladesh grapples with the environmental and health repercussions of plastic consumption, the insights from this study provide a robust foundation for informed decision-making, emphasizing the urgency of collaborative efforts between government bodies, industries, and civil society. The path forward necessitates a harmonized approach, integrating policy reforms, awareness campaigns, and sustainable practices to navigate the challenges posed by plastic pollution and forge a more environmentally resilient future.

The following supporting information can be downloaded at the website of this paper posted on Preprints.org.