This research answers the knowledge gap regarding the explanation of the quantum jump of the electron. This scientific paper aims to complete Einstein’s research regarding general relativity and attempt to link general relativity to quantum laws.

This literature review presents a comparative analysis of cranial morphology in Allosaurus, focusing on its implications for feeding mechanics. Allosaurus, a large theropod dinosaur from the Late Jurassic period, exhibits distinct cranial features that are pivotal for understanding its predatory behaviors and ecological role. By examining fossilized skulls and employing advanced imaging techniques, this research identifies key morphological traits such as tooth structure, jaw articulation, and cranial robusticity. The analysis reveals that Allosaurus had a specialized cranial architecture that supported a powerful bite force and efficient processing of prey. Comparative metrics are applied to assess similarities and differences with other theropods, such as Tyrannosaurus rex, to elucidate variations in feeding strategies among theropods. The findings suggest that Allosaurus possessed adaptations that allowed it to exploit a diverse range of prey, indicating a versatile feeding strategy. These results enhance our understanding of theropod evolution and ecological interactions, providing insights into the functional significance of cranial morphology in dinosaurian predation. This review underscores the importance of cranial features in reconstructing the behavior and diet of extinct species and contributes to the broader field of vertebrate functional morphology.

This paper first explains the theory of the origin of force from a new perspective, explaining that the origin of all forces is caused by the "missing of energy in the time dimension" (non-conservation in a certain period of time), and constructs a unified theory of force on this basis. Then, through the unified theory of force, the following phenomena are reinterpreted: (1) The common origin of the inverse square law of gravitation and electromagnetic force; (2) The origin of the repulsive force of electrons and protons at small distances; (3) The mystery of the rotation curve of galaxies and the new explanation of "dark matter"; (4) explain the origin of the magnetic field; (5) Predict that moving magnets have the same radiation effect as charged particles (electron magnetic moments also have radiation effects); (6) Reinterpret Maxwell's displacement current; (7) Reinterpret synchrotron radiation and bremsstrahlung; (8) Explain that the strong and weak forces are short-range forces; (9) Predict the true structure of black holes and the origin of gravitational waves;(10) Possible explanation for the origin of the speed of light.

In the present work we revise and extend the Characteristic Crystallographic Element (CCE) norm, an algorithm used to simultaneously detect radial and orientational similarity of computer-generated structures with respect to specific reference crystals and local symmetries. Based on the identification of point group symmetry elements, the CCE descriptor is able to gauge local structure with high precision and finely distinguish between competing morphologies. As test cases we use computer-generated monomeric and polymer systems of spherical particles interacting with the hard-sphere and square-well attractive potentials. We demonstrate that the CCE norm is able to detect and differentiate, between others, among: hexagonal close packed (HCP), face centered cubic (FCC), hexagonal (HEX) and body centered cubic (BCC) crystals as well as non-crystallographic fivefold (FIV) local symmetry in bulk 3-D systems; triangular (TRI), square (SQU) and honeycomb (HON) crystals, as well as pentagonal (PEN) local symmetry in thin films of one-layer thickness (2-D systems). The descriptor is general and can be applied to identify the symmetry elements of any point group for arbitrary atomic or particulate system in two or three dimensions, in the bulk or under confinement.

BackgroundThe present review summarizes the state-of-the-art of in silico methods and techniques that are the most useful in drug discovery, their relationship with data science, as well as the successful application of data science, machine learning (ML) and artificial intelligence (AI) applications. A meta-analysis of the various technologies available is furthermore proposed as a guideline for the non-expert, reader relative to the several subject areas is also discussed in this article. The scope of this meta-analysis is to rank the enlisted technologies by their field of applications and to depict the latter according to knowledge accessibility, from students to experts.Method The search strategy utilized for this review first produced a general collection of 900 papers without duplications, which were subsequently streamlined and divided into two independent collections: the top 300 most-cited papers of all time (since 2000) and the papers with the highest interest for a systematic review analysis (high-impact exciting papers). Results In Part 1, we discuss the most cited and quality 97 articles in these top 300 papers most relevant to the field of in silico drug discovery. The different disciplines are listed according to their industrial and economic incurred to society, independently from the “metric” results of how many new drug approvals (NDAs) each discipline has generated to date.ConclusionBig data, the ensemble of known items stored in publicly available databases, has improved our understanding of the many fates of a potential drug candidate during its development and even after its commercialization. Moreover, the combination of new screening techniques and “omics” with old drugs has led to a new paradigm in which the unknown knowledge of any biological molecule and its cellular structure, now plays an important role as a target for a series of yet-to-be-developed drugs: the chemical space. Furthermore, leveraging big data, data science, ML, and AI can revolutionize drug discovery by swiftly analyzing massive datasets, predicting efficacy and safety profiles, streamlining development, cutting costs, and boosting success rates for new drugs. AI also speeds up the search for promising drug candidates, advancing innovative therapies.

Alkyl moieties—open chain or cyclic—are common in drug molecules and can be internal or terminal. The open-chain alkyls can be linear or branched; the cyclic alkyls may be substituted. Usually, the branches in open-chain alkyls and substituents in cycloalkyls influence both the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of a drug molecule. The hydrophobicity of alkyl moieties in drug molecules is modified by metabolic hydroxy functionalization via free-radical intermediates to give primary, secondary, or tertiary alcohols depending on the class of the substrate carbon. The hydroxymethyl groups resulting from the functionalization of methyl groups are mostly oxidized further to carboxyl groups to give carboxy metabolites. As observed from the surveyed cases in this review, hydroxy functionalization leads to loss, attenuation, or retention of pharmacologic activity with respect to the parent drug. On the other hand, carboxy functionalization leads to a loss of activity with the exception of only a few cases in which activity is retained. The exceptions are those groups in which the carboxy functionalization occurs at a position distant from a well-defined primary pharmacophore. Some parent-drug equiactive hydroxy metabolites have been developed into metabolite ester prodrugs, while some of the parent-drug carboxy metabolites have been developed into metabolite drugs. In this review, we present and discuss the above state of affairs for a variety of drug classes, using selected drug members to show the effect on pharmacologic activity as well as dependence of the metabolic change on drug molecular structure. Some subtexts found to manifest from the hydroxy and carboxy functionalization of alkyl moieties in drug molecules are presented and discussed. The review provides basis for informed predictions of (i) structural features required for metabolic hydroxy and carboxy functionalization of alkyl moieties in existing or planned small drug molecules; and (ii) whether the resulting metabolites will possess pharmacologic activity or be devoid of it.

Gigantism in theropods represents one of the most intriguing phenomena in dinosaur evolution, showcasing extreme adaptations in body size and ecological roles. This literature review focuses on Giganotosaurus carolinii, one of the largest known theropods to have ever existed, to explore its unique aspects of gigantism and the subsequent ecological impacts. By analyzing features such as its skeletal morphology, comparative anatomy, and paleoenvironmental data, we assess the evolutionary pressures and biological constraints that shaped the gigantism observed in Giganotosaurus. We discover that the species exhibited a combination of physiological and ecological adaptations that allowed it to thrive as an apex predator in its Cretaceous environment. We will also further examine the implications of its size on prey dynamics, competition with other large theropods, and the overall ecosystem structure. Through a thorough, multidisciplinary approach, this research enhances our understanding of how gigantism influenced theropod behavior, interspecies interactions, and the broader paleoecological landscape.

This article is some review of results that were obtained at 2007-2021 years development of “The Information as Absolute” concept and the informational physical model, which is based on the concept; including a number of fundamental physical problems are briefly considered in framework of the conception and the model. Recently in physics there are several publications, that present lists of the problems. However, those lists are essentially incomplete, for at least two reasons. Firsts of all, a number of phenomena are studied traditionally by philosophy, and so corresponding problems are usually considered to be “metaphysical”. However, they relate also to some concrete physical phenomena. For example, physics evidently studies Matter, and so the metaphysical problems “what is ontology of Matter”, “what is “Space”, “Time” and a few other physical phenomena and notions as well, are really a Meta-physical problems “what does physics study?” There are other fundamental physical problems, which are not considered as such in physics, and are absent in the “fundamental problems lists”. Those include the problems, which really exist, yet are incorporated into standard physical theories, and so are fundamental “implicitly”, which in physics are “solved by default” ‒ and mostly erroneously. Note, though, that a number of “Meta-physical”, and concrete fundamental, problems more in detail are considered in the paper “The Informational Conception and Basic Physics”, https://arxiv.org/abs/0707.4657, v5 (2021), so this paper is, in certain sense, an expanded conclusion of this paper, which includes, correspondingly, more in detail consideration of some more general physical problems; and, besides, in this article, the problem “what are Gravity and Electric Forces” is essentially clarified comparing with the arXiv 2021 paper version above, and additionally initial model of Nuclear Force is presented. Besides, the concrete problem “What is Life”, and the rational cosmological model, where a few vague points in standard cosmology rather probably are rationally clarified, while the fundamental problem “matter – antimatter asymmetry” in Matter is solved with rather large probability, are considered, and one of recently published rather complete “lists of fundamental problems” is commented in Appendix.

Dementia patients express a set of problematic and deteriorating symptoms, along self-care dependency. Overtime, the mental health of family caregivers of persons with dementia may suffer, putting them at a high risk for psychopathology, which may be associated with endangered wellbeing of demented people. This cross-sectional study examined the psychometric properties of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale 8-items (DASS-8), DASS-12, DASS-21 in a convenient sample of 571 caregivers from northern Italy and southern Switzerland (Mean age = 53, SD = 12, range = 24–89 years). A bifactor structure of the three measures had the best fit; some items of the DASS-12/DASS-21 failed to load on their domain-specific factors. The three-factor structure was invariant across various groups (e.g., gender, education, etc.), expressed adequate reliability and convergent validity, and had strong positive correlation with the 3-item UCLA Loneliness Scale (UCLALS3). Dementia type had no effect on distress scores, which were higher among females, adult children caregivers, those caring for dependent patients, and those who received help with care. For 54.9 and 38.8% of the latter, care was provided by relatives and health professionals, respectively. Since the DASS-8 expresses adequate psychometrics comparable with the DASS-21, it may be used as a brief measure of distress in this population.

We conducted a comparative study on the development of two synthetic methods. The solvent-free synthesis is a green chemistry method developed in a bid to ameliorate environmental adverse effects of the conventional solvent-based synthesis. The synthesis of novel dichloro and polymethoxy p-nitrophenylhydrazones through solvent free technique gave moderate to high yields which were however lower than those of the solvent-based method. The established solvent-free approach has several benefits, including universality and simplicity of the approach, catalyst-free conditions, non-use of an organic solvent, quick reaction time, fast and efficient workup, and un-solvated pure products in moderate to high yields.

Despite extensive investigations of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales-21 (DASS-21) since its development in 1995, its factor structure and other psychometric properties still need to be firmly established, with several calls for revising its item structure. Employing confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), this study examined the factor structure of the DASS-21 and five shortened versions of the DASS-21 among psychiatric patients (N = 168) and the general public (N = 992) during the COVID-19 confinement period in Saudi Arabia. Multigroup CFA, Mann Whitney W test, Spearman’s correlation, and coefficient alpha were used to examine the shortened versions of the DASS-21 (DASS-13, DASS-12, DASS-9 (two versions), and DASS-8) for invariance across age and gender groups, discriminant validity, predictive validity, item coverage, and internal consistency, respectively. Compared with the DASS-21, all three-factor structures of the shortened versions expressed good fit, with the DASS-8 demonstrating the best fit and highest item loadings on the corresponding factors in both samples (χ2(16, 15) = 16.5, 67.0; p = 0.420, 0.000; CFI= 1.000, 0.998; TLI = 0.999, 0.997; RMSEA = 0.013, 0.059, SRMR = 0.0186, 0.0203). It expressed configural, metric, and scalar invariance across age and gender groups. Its internal consistency was comparable to other versions (α = 0.94). Strong positive correlations of the DASS-8 and its subscales with the DASS-21 and its subscales (r = 0.97 to 0.81) suggest adequate item coverage and good predictive validity of this version. The DASS-8 and its subscales distinguished the clinical sample from the general public at the same level of significance expressed by the DASS-21 and other shortened versions, supporting its discriminant validity. Neither the DASS-21 nor the shortened versions distinguished patients diagnosed with depression and anxiety from other conditions. The DASS-8 represents a valid short version of the DASS-21, which may be useful in research and clinical practice for quick identification of individuals with potential psychopathologies. Diagnosing depression/anxiety disorders may be further confirmed in a next step by clinician-facilitated examinations. Brevity of the DASS-21 would save time and effort used for filling the questionnaire and support comprehensive assessments by allowing the inclusion of more measures on test batteries.

A new framework in quantum chemistry has been proposed recently ("An approach to first principles electronic structure calculation by symbolic-numeric computation'' by A. Kikuchi). It is based on the modern technique of computational algebraic geometry, viz. the symbolic computation of polynomial systems. Although this framework belongs to molecular orbital theory, it fully adopts the symbolic method. The analytic integrals in the secular equations are approximated by the polynomials. The indeterminate variables of polynomials represent the wave-functions and other parameters for the optimization, such as atomic positions and contraction coefficients of atomic orbitals. Then the symbolic computation digests and decomposes the polynomials into a tame form of the set of equations, to which numerical computations are easily applied. The key technique is Grröbner basis theory, by which one can investigate the electronic structure by unraveling the entangled relations of the involved variables. In this article, at first, we demonstrate the featured result of this new theory. Next, we expound the mathematical basics concerning computational algebraic geometry, which are necessitated in our study. We will see how highly abstract ideas of polynomial algebra would be applied to the solution of the definite problems in quantum mechanics. We solve simple problems in "quantum chemistry in algebraic variety'' by means of algebraic approach. Finally, we review several topics related to polynomial computation, whereby we shall have an outlook for the future direction of the research.

The Hyper-Torus Universe Model (HTUM) proposes a novel framework to unify quantum mechanics, cosmology, and consciousness. This paper introduces HTUM's core concept: a higher-dimensional hyper-torus encompassing all possible states of existence. HTUM suggests that the universe functions as a quantum system where all outcomes are inherently connected, with consciousness playing a significant role in actualizing reality. The model introduces several key innovations, including the universe's 4-dimensional toroidal structure (4DTS), providing a new geometric interpretation of spacetime. HTUM presents dark matter and dark energy as nonlinear probabilistic phenomena within this toroidal framework, offering a unique perspective on their nature and interactions. The model proposes a mechanism for wave function collapse through universal self-observation, bridging quantum mechanics and gravity. It introduces a Topological Vacuum Energy Modulator (TVEM) function, offering a potential resolution to the cosmological constant problem. Furthermore, HTUM integrates consciousness as a fundamental aspect of the universe, influencing quantum state actualization and potentially resolving the hard problem of consciousness. The model explores the implications of a timeless singularity and the emergence of time as a product of causal relationships within the toroidal structure. This framework addresses critical challenges in modern physics, including the nature of quantum entanglement, the origin and fate of the universe, and the relationship between mind and matter. The paper discusses the mathematical formulation of HTUM, its implications for quantum mechanics and cosmology, and its potential to bridge the gap between science and philosophy. We present detailed predictions for the cosmic microwave background (CMB) power spectrum, gravitational wave signatures, and large-scale structure formation, demonstrating how HTUM differs from the standard ΛCDM model. Our analysis reveals distinctive oscillatory patterns in the relative difference between HTUM and ΛCDM predictions, with deviations reaching up to ±20% at certain scales. The paper also explores the unification of fundamental forces within the HTUM framework, proposing novel approaches to particle physics and quantum field theory. It introduces the concept of unified mathematical operations, suggesting a more holistic approach to mathematical thinking that aligns with the model's interconnected view of the universe. Additional testable predictions and proposed experimental approaches are discussed, including advanced space-based tests and laboratory experiments probing quantum gravity effects. These specific, quantifiable predictions offer multiple avenues for empirical validation, highlighting HTUM's potential to be distinguished from ΛCDM and other alternative cosmological models. HTUM represents a significant new perspective in our understanding of the universe, inviting further research and exploration into the nature of reality, consciousness, and the fundamental structure of the cosmos. By providing a comprehensive framework that unifies various aspects of physics, cosmology, and consciousness studies, HTUM offers a promising path toward a more complete understanding of our universe.

The article titled "Immunoglobulins and Its Applications" provides a comprehensive overview of the structure, function, and therapeutic significance of immunoglobulins, also known as antibodies. These vital proteins, produced by plasma cells in response to immunogens, are essential components of the immune system, playing a critical role in recognizing and neutralizing pathogens such as bacteria and viruses. The article elaborates on the five primary classes of immunoglobulins (IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM), each distinguished by its unique structural and functional properties. It discusses the molecular composition of immunoglobulins, highlighting the significance of their variable and constant regions in antigen binding. The paper also explores the diverse immune functions mediated by these proteins, including precipitation, agglutination, and neutralization of antigens. Additionally, the article emphasizes the therapeutic applications of immunoglobulins, particularly in treating immune deficiencies and other diseases. Advances in monoclonal antibody technology have significantly expanded the utility of immunoglobulins in both research and medicine, leading to the development of innovative therapeutic approaches such as humanized monoclonal antibodies and bifunctional antibodies. This comprehensive analysis underscores the critical role of immunoglobulins in both natural immunity and therapeutic interventions.