Prerpints.org logo
Preprint
Review

Key Points in HIV Infection

Altmetrics

Downloads

446

Views

310

Comments

0

This version is not peer-reviewed

Explainable AI for Health

Submitted:

03 July 2024

Posted:

04 July 2024

You are already at the latest version

Alerts
Abstract
HIV infection is a nowadays pathology that affect persons from all of the world. Pathogenesis of the HIV-infection and cancer is a great problem, with a complexity directions in research. More important in HIV infection to patients, is also to take into consideration others things, such as prevention, diagnosis, monitoring, treatment, including control measures. This previously mentioned, should be supported by statistical studies that report on restricted or extended geographical areas, to the level of social class and age. In our written text we try to describe from our opinion, strategies in HIV, infection, status knowing as a social and as a healthcare problem.
Keywords: 
Subject: Medicine and Pharmacology  -   Immunology and Allergy

1. Introduction

Actually, HIV infection is a pathology that affect persons from all of the world. This disease, is relatively stigmatisant. So patient must be evaluate and monitorised periodically. Immune system affecting must be evaluate periodically using blood tests and cellular biomarkers evaluation, for prevention or for diagnosis of other developing diseases. Ill human subjects, diagnosed with HIV, are in continue exposure to malignancy, for example but for sure not only. [1,2] In order to establish the HIV infected patient and individual ill status, inflammatory biomarkers and them laboratory results, play a significant role in developing accompanying diseases. [3,4,5] More than, inflammatory biomarkers in patients diagnosed with HIV, are implied in cardiovascular and blood vessels diseases. [6,7] In this direction, angiogenesis is considered as a dysregulated status in HIV- infected persons. [8] In studies is important to find the permeability level of a blood vessel. [9] A structural analyse from each blood vessel compound is important to find and to show. In vascular endothelial cells developing, research studies could find receptors such as Tie-1 and Tie-2, which are responsible for vascular maturation and angiogenesis. [10] Also best to talk a little bit about angiopoietin-1 via Tie-2 knowing that signaling facilitates endothelial development and also good to mention about Ang-2 that acts as an Ang-1 antagonist by binding to the Tie-2 receptor. [11] From another perspective, we can mention that HER family members also interact with non-HER family members. [12,13] Human papillomaviruses (HPV) are a group of host-specific DNA viruses with 15 high-risk or oncogenic subtypes with bad implications in developing neoplasia, to patients diagnosed with HIV infection. [14,15] Results of studies show as that HPV infections are greatest causes of cervical cancer and more than, contribute for developing other neoplasic cells in another locations from the human body. Actually laboratory techniques, such as immunohistochemistry, is consider proper for diagnosis. [16] [Figure 1]

2. HIV Management

Regarding the management of HIV / AIDS infection, the number of co-infections that change the evolution of the disease, as indicated from the growing number of studies, has increased; notably tuberculosis, which is previously mentioned. Related prevention methods in HIV diseases, concretely to infected patients, have been made theoretically, different types of methodologie with a possible application in practice. HIV prevention, HIV transmission and management of HIV/AIDS since the virus was discovered in the early 1980s. , are in attention of many scientists in this field of research.[17]
For HIV prevention, idea for finding and developing a proper vaccine, have largely failed. Actually in this field, research studies including, pre-exposure prophylaxis methods such as vaccines, together with treatment and cure, are in attention.[18]
In intention to treat HIV infection to ill patients diagnosed with this viral disease, the developing antiretroviral therapy, with applicability in prevention and in treatment of HIV, is applicable with a great success. [18] From a specific perspective, we can mention that HIV infection contributes to developing comorbidities. Such diseases, include finally all organs and systems from the human body. For example we can mention, cardiovascular disease, bone disease, renal and hepatic disease.. The applicability of antiretroviral drugs is useful in inhibiting HIV replication. [19] HIV remains a major public health problem which need a well management in order to avoid developing other bad pathologies as neoplasia, that affect the ill status from each diagnosed HIV infected patient.

3. Psychological, Medical, and Ecological Perspectives Influencing the Behavior of the Patient Diagnosed with HIV

From a psychological, medical, and ecological perspective, behavior is seen as affecting and being affected by 5 influencing factors: intrapersonal or individual factors, interpersonal factors, institutional, organizational factors, community factors and public policies.
More than, also from this perspective, a model with three influencing factors can be achieved: individual, interpersonal and community by combining the last three categories of factors. The result is a third category related to broad social structures united under the title of community factors. [20] This is an interesting field of study, in connection with psychologists. As a result from specialists studies in this direction, should be find possible future trends in HIV interprofessional abordations. From another perspective, pathogenesis related to a possible connection between HIV-infection and cancer is also a currently problem in research.
A medical history to a patients diagnosed with HIV infection is important and include signs, and symptoms, knowing personal sexual status, but not only. [21] More than, a social history could be considered as a integrative part of a medical evaluation to a HIV infected patients. [21] Medical specialists must be carefully and able to monitor, tracking status to comorbidities and malignancy to HIV infected patients. [22,23]
HIV is part in the Retroviridae family more specific Lentivirus genus. [24]
There are known informations about two types of HIV, exactly HIV type 1 (HIV-1) and HIV type 2 (HIV-2). [25]
As we know, the US National Institutes of Health describe three stages of HIV infection. So there are acute HIV infection, chronic or asymptomatic HIV infection, and AIDS. [26]
[Figure 2]

4. Conclusions

Techniques for the laboratory diagnosis that are implications in monitoring of HIV infection, are implied and conduct to a proper quality of life in patients diagnosed with HIV. The global target for 2030 is the elimination of AIDS as a public health problem. To help to meet this goal, it there are the necessary means to succeed in ending the HIV / AIDS epidemic. This is by identifying, treating, and educating the HIV-positive patient. However, the challenge is with reaching the groups where infection and transmission rates are highest. Both nationally and globally, one of the best solutions is to raise awareness of this public health problem is to reach out to different populations.

References

  1. Lifson AR, Belloso WH, Carey C, et al. Determination of the underlying cause of death in three multicenter international HIV clinical trials. HIV Clin Trials. 2008;9:177–185. [CrossRef]
  2. Deeks SG, Phillips AN. HIV infection, antiretroviral treatment, ageing, and non-AIDS related morbidity. BMJ. 2009;338:a3172.
  3. Baker J, Ayenew W, Quick H, et al. High-density lipoprotein particles and markers of inflammation and thrombotic activity in patients with untreated HIV infection. J Infectious Dis. 2010;201:285–292.
  4. Funderburg NT, Mayne E, Sieg SF, et al. Increased tissue factor expression on circulating monocytes in chronic HIV infection: relationship to in vivo coagulation and immune activation. Blood. 2010;115:161–167.
  5. Neuhaus J, Jacobs DR, Jr, Baker JV, et al. Markers of inflammation, coagulation, and renal function are elevated in adults with HIV infection. J Infect Dis. 2010;201:1788–1795.
  6. Jong E, Louw S, Meijers JC, et al. The hemostatic balance in HIV-infected patients with and without anti-retroviral therapy: partial restoration with antiretroviral therapy. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2009;23:1001–1007.
  7. Pontrelli G, Martino AM, Tchidjou HK, et al. HIV is associated with thrombophilia and high D-dimer in children and adolescents. AIDS. 2010;24:1145–1151. [CrossRef]
  8. Paydas S., Ergin M., Seydaoglu G., Erdogan S., Yavuz S. Pronostic significance of angiogenic/lymphangiogenic, anti-apoptotic, inflammatory and viral factors in 88 cases with diffuse large b cell lymphoma and review of the literature. Leuk. Res. 2009;33:1627–1635. [CrossRef]
  9. Bates D.O. An unexpected tail of vegf and plgf in pre-eclampsia. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 2011:1576–1582.
  10. Fagiani E., Christofori G. Angiopoietins in angiogenesis. Cancer Lett. 2013;328:18–26. [CrossRef]
  11. Findley C.M., Mitchell R.G., Duscha B.D., Annex B.H., Kontos C.D. Plasma levels of soluble tie2 and vascular endothelial growth factor distinguish critical limb ischemia from intermittent claudication in patients with peripheral arterial disease. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2008;52:387–393. [CrossRef]
  12. Engelman JA, Zejnullahu K, Mitsudomi T, Song Y, Hyland C, Park JO. et al. MET amplification leads to gefitinib resistance in lung cancer by activating ERBB3 signaling. Science. 2007;316:1039–1043. [CrossRef]
  13. Nahta R, Yuan LXH, Zhang B, Kobayashi R, Esteva FJ. Insulin-like growth factor-I receptor/human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 heterodimerization contributes to trastuzumab resistance of breast cancer cells. Cancer Res. 2005;65:11118–111128.
  14. Muñoz N, Bosch FX, de Sanjosé S, Herrero R, Castellsagué X, et al. Epidemiologic classification of human papillomavirus types associated with cervical cancer. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:518–527.
  15. Mork J, Lie AK, Glattre E, Hallmans G, Jellum E, et al. Human papillomavirus infection as a risk factor for squamous-cell carcinoma of the head and neck. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:1125–1131.
  16. Ray, P., Liu, XH., Xu, L. et al. Basic fibroblast growth factor in HIV-associated hemolytic uremic syndrome. Pediatr Nephrol 13, 586–593 (1999).
  17. Moss Joseph Anthony, HIV/AIDS Review, Radiol Technol., . 2013 Jan-Feb;84(3):247-67; quiz p.268-70.
  18. Landovitz J. Raphael, Scott Hyman Scott , Deeks G. Steven, Prevention, treatment and cure of HIV infection, Nat Rev Microbiol., . 2023 Oct;21(10):657-670.
  19. Deeks G. Steven, Overbaugh Julie, Phillips Andrew, Buchbinder Susan, HIV infection, Nat Rev Dis Primers . 2015 Oct 1:1:15035.
  20. Bhattacharya G. Social capital and HIV risks among acculturating Asian Indian men in New York City. AIDS Educ Prev 2005; 17: 555- 567.
  21. Thompson MA, Horberg MA, Agwu AL, Colasanti JA, Jain MK, Short WR, Singh T, Aberg JA. Primary Care Guidance for Persons With Human Immunodeficiency Virus: 2020 Update by the HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2021 Dec 06;73(11):e3572-e3605.
  22. Thio CL, Seaberg EC, Skolasky R, Phair J, Visscher B, Muñoz A, Thomas DL., Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study. HIV-1, hepatitis B virus, and risk of liver-related mortality in the Multicenter Cohort Study (MACS). Lancet. 2002 Dec 14;360(9349):1921-6. [CrossRef]
  23. Yin Z, Rice BD, Waight P, Miller E, George R, Brown AE, Smith RD, Slack M, Delpech VC. Invasive pneumococcal disease among HIV-positive individuals, 2000-2009. AIDS. 2012 Jan 02;26(1):87-94. [CrossRef]
  24. van Heuvel Y, Schatz S, Rosengarten JF, Stitz J. Infectious RNA: Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Biology, Therapeutic Intervention, and the Quest for a Vaccine. Toxins (Basel). 2022 Feb 14;14(2). [CrossRef]
  25. Meissner ME, Talledge N, Mansky LM. Molecular Biology and Diversification of Human Retroviruses. Front Virol. 2022;2. [CrossRef]
  26. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Revised surveillance case definition for HIV infection--United States, 2014. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2014 Apr 11;63(RR-03):1-10.
Preprints 111195 g001
Figure 1. HIV informations.
Figure 1. HIV informations.
Preprints 111195 g001
Preprints 111195 g002
Figure 2. HIV Infection types.
Figure 2. HIV Infection types.
Preprints 111195 g002
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.
Copyright: This open access article is published under a Creative Commons CC BY 4.0 license, which permit the free download, distribution, and reuse, provided that the author and preprint are cited in any reuse.
Prerpints.org logo

Preprints.org is a free preprint server supported by MDPI in Basel, Switzerland.

facebook logotwitter logolinkedin logo
MDPI Initiatives
Important Links
Subscribe

Disclaimer

Terms of Use

Privacy Policy

© 2024 MDPI (Basel, Switzerland) unless otherwise stated