Prerpints.org logo
Preprint
Article

Wild Mushrooms: A Hidden Treasure of Novel Bioactive Compounds

This version is not peer-reviewed.

Submitted:

25 July 2023

Posted:

26 July 2023

You are already at the latest version

A peer-reviewed article of this preprint also exists.

Abstract
Mushrooms are unexploited treasures of secondary metabolites. Analysis of the chemical constituents of these mushrooms would be necessary for the assessment of their pharmacological and biological activities. This study aimed at profiling of mycochemical constituents of five wild mushroom extracts thereby understanding their biological and pharmacological properties. Mushrooms were collected from Arabuko-Sokoke and Kakamega National Reserved Forests, Kenya. Specimens were identified by both morphological and molecular methods. Bioactive compounds were extracted using chloroform, 70% ethanol, and hot water solvents. Chloroform, 70% ethanol, and hot water extracts of Auricularia auricula-judae, Microporus xanthopus, Termitomyces umkowaani, Trametes elegans, and Trametes versicolor were determined using gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (GC-MS). From all extracts, a total of fifty-one (51) compounds were identified and grouped into carboxylic acids, esters, phenols, fatty acids, alcohol, epoxides, aldehyde, fatty aldehyde, isoprenoid lipids, and steroid. Of the total compounds, Oleic acid (72.90%) from Trametes elegans was detected abundantly. Most of the compounds obtained from the chloroform extract of Trametes elegans and 70% ethanol extract of T. umkowaani are fatty acids. The identified compounds have revealed many biological and pharmacological activities such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, antimalarial, anti-inflammatory, insecticidal, anti-helminthic, larvicidal, vasodilator, antihypertensive, hepatoprotective, anticancer, antidiabetic, antifertility anti-diuretic, antiasthma, antifouling, anti-dermatophytic, antispasmodic, anti-hypocholesterolemic, nematicide, pesticide, immunostimulant, antiarthritic, and antihistaminic. These fatty acids are particularly playing important roles in the anti-inflammatory, hypocholesterolemic anticancer, and anti-biofilm formation activities. The presence of these bioactive components suggests that the extracts of five wild mushrooms could be good sources of secondary metabolites for drug discovery.
Keywords: 
Antioxidant
;  
Biological activity
;  
GC-MS
;  
Mycochemicals
;  
Pharmacological Activity
;  
Wild Mushrooms
Subject: 
Biology and Life Sciences  -   Biology and Biotechnology

supplementary.docx (578.88KB )

1. Introduction

Macrofungi are vital sources of nutritious and functional food for humankind [1,2]. They are widely reported as reservoirs of highly varied biologically active compounds [2]. Although many higher fungi are sources of many bioactive compounds, yet to be fully harnessed [3,4]. The growing interest in searching for fungi that can contain many bioactive compounds is a growing line of research [5]. The continuous search for new lead compounds of therapeutic importance has become necessary in the face of treatment failures and as the multidrug resistance plaguing the world [3].
Mushrooms are opening numerous opportunities for bioprospecting and downstream applications [6]. Systematic investigation and evaluation of natural compounds obtained from mushrooms can have enormous benefits to tackle infectious and non-infectious diseases [7,8]. Mushrooms are large sources of bioactive compounds which can be exploited for the development of novel drugs [9,10,11,12,13]. Medicinal mushrooms and fungi are thought to possess around 130 medicinal functions, including antitumor, immunomodulator, antioxidant, cardiovascular, anti-hypercholesterolemic, antiviral, antibacterial, antiparasitic, antifungal, detoxification, antidiabetic, anticancer, antimicrobials, anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic, antibacterial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antioxidative, antiviral, cytotoxic, anti-depressive, antihyperlipidemic, antidiabetic, digestive, hepatoprotective, neuroprotective, nephroprotective, osteoprotective, hypotensive, effects, etc. [5,10,14,15,16]. The stated health benefits of mushrooms have been attributed to the presence of many bioactive compounds such as carbohydrates, proteins, essential amino acids, unsaturated fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals [17,18].
Auricularia auricular-judge (Bull.) is classified as Phylum-Basidiomycota, Class-Agaricomycetes, Order-Auriculariales, Family-Auriculariaceae, and genus-Auricularia. A. auricula-judae (aka black fungi, wood ear, Jew's ear, or jelly ear) is a highly nutritious edible mushroom with many pharmacological properties [19,20]. It contains amino acids, carbohydrates, vitamins, trace elements, and various health-promoting compounds such as polysaccharides, melanin, polyphenols, and flavonoids. It also has a large number of chemical compositions that possess antioxidant, anticoagulant, and antitumor activity [21].
Microporus xanthopus (Fr.) Kuntze belongs to Phylum-Basidiomycota, Class-Agaricomycetes, Order-Polyporales, Family-Polyporaceae, Genus-Microporus. It is a polypore inedible medicinal mushroom. It has diverse chemical compounds such as alkaloids, flavonoids, steroids, triterpenoids, and coumarin which are promising for pharmacological activities with potential uses in medicine, agriculture, and other industries [22]. The identification of these compounds highlights the potential for natural products to be developed into effective drugs for a range of conditions. It has been reported to exhibit antibacterial, anticancer, antiangiogenic, and anthelmintic activities. The higher concentrations of these medicinal properties are believed to be a result of the environment and substrate in which the polypore mushroom grows [23].
Termitomyces umkowaani belongs to the order Agaricales (Agaricomycetes), family Lyophyllaceae and subfamily Macrotermitinae. Termitomyces species are economically valuable edible mushrooms, that grow in an obligate mutualistic association with fungal-growing termites belonging to the subfamily Macrotermitinae (Isoptera) [24]. The termites provide the ambient microclimatic condition suitable for the growth and propagation of the fungi and the latter provide enzymatic supplement to aid digestion of the divergent termite food [25]. Their geographical distribution coincides with the distribution of termites exclusively found in Africa and some parts of South East Asia [26,27]. Termitomyces have indicated that their bioactive compounds have the potential to fight against certain human diseases such as cancer, hyperlipidemia, gastroduodenal diseases, and Alzheimer’s [24,28] Termitomyces mushrooms also provide digestive enzymes and vitamins to their hosts [27].
Trametes elegans belongs to the phylum of Basidiomycota and the family Polyporaceae. It is both a saprotrophic and endophytic fungus that causes white rot during the decay of woody substrates found generally in hardwood forests [29]. Trametes versicolor (aka Turkey tail) has gained remarkable popularity due to its broad spectrum utilization in the food and pharmaceutical industries [30]. It is widely distributed in various biotopes and has been the subject of many physiological and biochemical studies. It has biological and metabolic diversity as a result of its ability to decompose dead organic matter and utilize several substrates [31]. This organism is from the It is also famous for its medicinal values and industrial uses (food production industry) and is commonly used for the restoration of soil, and wastewater treatment, as well as lignin biodegradation as a result it serves as bioremediation and biodegrades of cellulosic waste [17,32]
Trametes versicolor (L) Lloyd (family Polyporaceae) is common in temperate Asia, North America, and Europe, including the UK. Its medicinal value dates back at least 2000 years and includes general health-promoting effects (e.g. endurance and longevity) [33]. It possesses a variety of biologically active polysaccharides used to promote immune function, antivirus, antitumor, anti-diabetes, infections of the respiratory, urinary, and digestive tracts, chronic hepatitis, and rheumatoid arthritis [34]. It consists of 18 different amino acids viz aspartic acid, threonine, serine, glutamic acid, glycine, alanine, valine, and leucine, and many other compounds, such as proteins, fatty acids, polysaccharides, polysaccharopeptides, glucans, amino acids, vitamins, and a variety of inorganic salts [33,35]. All these amino acids contribute to several potential applications [36,37]. Its fruiting bodies have antiviral and antioxidant activity and increase memory and improvement of mental functions [38,39].
Very few Kenyan wild mushrooms have been reported to have therapeutic potentials, but little/no study has reported the structurally elucidated and identified bioactive compounds conferring these therapeutic properties. Therefore, it is important to determine the bioactive compounds present in the wild mushroom extracts which are responsible for their medicinal values. This study therefore aimed to explore the bioactive compounds present in the chloroform, ethanol, and hot water extracts of five wild mushrooms and to determine their biological and pharmacological therapeutic properties which may provide insight in its use in traditional and modern medicine.

2. Results and Discussion

2.1. GC-MS Analysis of Wild Mushroom Extracts

GC-MS analysis of five wild mushroom extracts revealed the presence of fifty-one (51) compounds. From the extracts, many important compounds such as acyclic monoterpenoids, alcohol, aldehyde, alkene, alkyl benzene, aromatic organic heterocyclic, benzoic acid ester, cycloalkane methanol, cyclohexane, epoxides, ester, fatty acid, fatty acid ester, fatty alcohol, fatty aldehyde, isoprenoid lipid, organosiloxane, phenol, phthalate, pyrrolidines, siloxane, steroid, and β-carotene were obtained. These different compounds and their pharmacological and biological activities are described below (Table 1, Table 2, Table 3, Table 4 and Table 5).

2.1.1. GC-MS Analysis of Auricularia auricula-judae

The HWE of AAJ revealed the presence of fourteen (14) bioactive compounds (Figure 1A, Table 1). These compounds have demonstrated many biological and pharmacological activities. Phenol, 2,6-bis (1,1-dimethyl ethyl)-4-methyl-, methylcarbamate (14.21%), 2-nonanol, 5-ethyl- (11.34%), octasiloxane, 1,1,3,3,5,5,7,7,9,9,11,11,13,13,15,15-hexadecamethyl- (10.65%), 2-methyl-6-methylene-octa-1,7-dien-3-ol (7.98%), 2-methyl-1-ethylpyrrolidine (7.23%), and silicic acid, diethyl bis (trimethylsilyl) ester (7.12%) were identified as major compounds (Table 1). These compounds were classified into alcohol, alkene, siloxane, ester, phthalic acid, and phthalate. The fruiting body of AAJ contains proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and enormous quantities of fibers, carotenes, minerals (calcium, phosphorous, iron), and vitamins [40]. Moreover, AAJ contains some bioactive constituents represented by polysaccharides, melanin, and polyphenols that are vital groups of secondary metabolites and are synthesized in response to biotic (pathogens) and abiotic stresses (salinity, water, and climatic stress) [19]. A study indicates that siloxanes were generally reported to exhibit significant antimicrobial and antioxidant properties [41]. Thus, the compounds found in the HWE of AAJ could prevent diseases such as aging, cancer, cardiovascular disease, inflammation, and other disorders that are dangerous to human health occurred due to the overabundance of free radicals in our body [42]. Phenolic compounds can also affect anti-proliferation, cell cycle regulation, induction of apoptosis, and other biological activities which are mostly mediated by receptor-ligand interactions [43].
Preprints 80497 i001
The HWE of AAJ has shown many biological and pharmacological activities such as antidepressant, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antimalarial, anti-inflammatory, insecticidal, hepatoprotective, anti-helminthic, larvicidal, anticholinesterase, antihypertensive, anticancer, antidiabetic, cholesterol-lowering, anti-urolithiasis, and antifertility. Previous studies also confirmed that AAJ extracts exhibit several biological and pharmacological properties such as anticoagulant, anti-diabetic, antioxidant, anticancer, hypolipidemic, anti-obesity, anti-inflammatory, anti-radiation, immunomodulatory, and antimicrobial activities [40,44,45]. A study reported that the HWE of AAJ also contains several phenolic compounds (e.g. epicatechin, catechin, chlorogenic acid, quercetin, and rutin). These phenolic compounds exhibited significant scavenging activity against DPPH free radicals, superoxide anions, and hydroxyl radicals. Crude AAJ extracts exhibit higher antioxidant activities, regulate blood pressure, and lowers cholesterol and lipid levels in the blood [40].
Crude polysaccharides obtained from AAJ have previously exhibited antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, Salmonella typhi, Proteus mirabilis, Klebsiella pneumonia, Candida albicans, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Candida parapsilosis [40,46]. Several in vitro and in vivo studies have shown the presence of many secondary metabolites such as β-glucans, chitin, and ergosterol derivatives. These metabolites exhibit potential anti-inflammatory activities and inhibit the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines [21,40]. The protective mechanisms of AAJ secondary metabolites against inflammatory activities could be by preventing the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, stimulating the anti-inflammatory cytokines, and averting immune response as well as cancer cell formation in the body [21,40,45,47]. They also defend our body by reducing cholesterol in the blood, supporting the immune system of our body, inhibiting inflammatory diseases, and hindering the onset of cancer [40,47,48]. The cholesterol-lowering properties of the Ergosterol derivatives are mainly because of their structural similarity with the cholesterol, whereas β-glucans and chitin may be due to their binding abilities to cholesterol receptors [49].
Mushroom polysaccharides have proven anti-diabetic activities by maintaining blood glucose homeostasis via the regulation of pancreatic insulin secretion [50]. A previous study also asserted that polysaccharides obtained from AAJ extracts exhibited significant anti-diabetic activity in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Low-density lipoprotein and total cholesterol levels in the blood were significantly reduced after the administration of AAJ polysaccharides to streptozotocin and high-fat diet-induced diabetic rats [51]. Moreover, diabetes-induced rats treated with AAJ polysaccharides led to a reduction of blood glucose levels by altering glucose metabolism, increasing insulin levels, and improving the insulin resistance islet damage in streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice [52,53]. These findings strongly suggested that AAJ-derived polysaccharides can be used as potential therapeutic agents against diabetes via modulation of blood glucose levels [40].
The HWE of AAJ contains high levels of insoluble fibers. These fibers are crucial to give potential health-promoting benefits through the modulation of gut microbiota [54,55]. The insoluble fibers act as prebiotics and are important factors to regulate the environment of the gut microbiota and to mediate their metabolic activities [56,57]. Beneficial gut microbiota plays a key role in protecting our body from various disease-causing pathogenic microbes by competing for food and by preventing attachment to the wall of the gut [58]. During their digestion and fermentation activities, these gut microbiota also help in the production of short-chain fatty acids (e.g. acetate, propionate, and butyrate) for our epithelial cells [59,60]. β-glucans obtained from HWE of AAJ have multiple health-promoting effects by maintaining a healthy gut environment and by serving exclusive carbon sources for intestinal bacteria during fermentation. Furthermore, they increased the number of beneficial bacteria (e.g. Bifidobacteria and Lactobacillus), which help in the production of short-chain fatty acids in our intestine [61]. They have also increased levels of serum IgA and IgG during the oral treatment of mice [62]. Moreover, they prevented unhealthy microbial growth in our gut, which can eventually protect our body from various gut-associated diseases [63,64].
Edible mushrooms have biological activities against cardiovascular disease. Species of Auricularia have been reported to contain cholesterol-lowering compounds [65]. Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (the culprit of cardiovascular disease) levels were reported to be reduced by AAJ extracts [56]. Using mice with hyperlipidemia as a model, AP obtained from AAJ extract significantly reduced serum and liver total cholesterol (TC), total triglyceride (TG), and serum Lactate dehydrogenase C (LDH-c) levels in mice. It can also protect the liver by enhancing antioxidant effects as a blood lipid-lowering agent [66].
Medicinal mushrooms are an important source of natural immuno-modulators. They contain diverse immune-regulatory compounds such as terpenes, lectins, immunomodulatory proteins, and polysaccharides. Immunomodulators can be immune-suppressants, immune-stimulants, and immune-adjuvants [67]. For example, an active compound AF1 β-1,3-d-glucan main chain with two β-1,6-d-glucosyl residues isolated from AAJ has induced apoptosis of cancer cells [68].
Table 1. GC-MS Analysis of A. auricula-judae Hot Water Extract.
Table 1. GC-MS Analysis of A. auricula-judae Hot Water Extract.
Peaks RT (min) PA (%) IUPAC Name and MF of Compounds Nature of Compounds Pharmacological and Biological Activities Ref.
1 19.98 10.65 Octasiloxane, 1,1,3,3,5,5,7,7,9,9,11,11,13,13,15,15-hexadecamethyl- (C16H50O7Si8) Siloxane Antidepressant, antimicrobial [41,69]
2 18.43 7.12 Silicic acid, diethyl bis(trimethylsilyl) ester (C10H28O4Si3) Ester Antioxidant, antimicrobial, antimalarial, anti-inflammatory [70,71]
3 17.19 4.43 Di-n-octyl phthalate (C24H38O4) Phthalic acid Antimicrobial, insecticidal [72,73]
4 16.87 6.12 Di-n-decylsulfone (C20H42O2S) Phthalate Antimicrobial, anticancer, anti-helminthic, antagonistic, larvicidal [74,75]
5 16.38 7.98 2-Methyl-6-methylene-octa-1,7-dien-3-ol (C10H16O) acyclic monoterpenoids No activity reported
6 16.18 5.65 1-Heptanol, 2,4-dimethyl- (R, R)- (+)- (C9H20O) Alcohol Antifungal, antioxidant, anticholinesterase [76,77,78]
7 15.34 4.31 Cyclohexano, 2,4-dimethyl- (C8H16O) Cyclohexane Anticancer [79]
8 14.65 3.43 Carbonic acid, methyl octyl ester (C10H20O3) Ester Hepatoprotective, antihypertensive, antioxidant, antimicrobial, antidiabetic, cholesterol-lowering, anti-urolithiasis, antifertility [80]
9 14.06 5.25 1-Allylcyclopropyl) methanol (C7H12O) Cycloalkane methanol No activity reported
10 13.64 7.23 2-Methyl-1-ethylpyrrolidine (C7H15N) Pyrrolidines Anti-tumor [81]
11 13.01 6.33 Oxirane, 2,2’-(1,4-dibutanediyl) bis- (C8H14O2) Epoxides Antibacterial [82]
12 12.47 11.34 2-Nonanol, 5-ethyl- (C11H24O) Fatty alcohol Anticancer [83]
13 11.91 5.86 1-Hexene, 4, 5-dimethyl- (C8H16) Alkene Antimicrobial [84]
14 11.34 14.21 Phenol, 2,6-bis (1,1-dimethylethyl)-4-methyl-, methyl carbamate (C17H27NO2) Alkyl benzene Antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, temporarily treat pharyngitis [85,86]
MF: Molecular formula; RT: Retention time; PA: Peak area.

2.1.2. GC-MS Analysis of Hot Water Extract of Microporus xanthopus

From hot water extract (HWE) of Microporus xanthopus (MX), twelve (12) compounds were identified (Figure 1B, Table 2). The 1-mono-linoleoyl glycerol trimethylsilyl ether (16.32%), trans-1, 1’-bibenzoindanylidene (14.18%), 2, 2’-divinylbenzophenone (13.76%), and didodecyl phthalate (11.39%) are among the abundant compounds. These compounds were classified into alcohol, epoxides, aldehyde, fatty aldehyde, isoprenoid lipid, n-alkanes, and steroid. These compounds have shown antioxidant, antimicrobial, nematicidal, antimalarial, anti-diuretic, antiasthma, vasodilator, antifouling, anti-dermatophytic, antihypertensive, uric acid excretion stimulant and diuretic, reducing depressive symptoms, and anti-inflammatory activities. Moreover, 1-monolinoleoylglycerol trimethylsilyl ether (steroid) has anti-diuretic, anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial antioxidant, anti-arthritic, and antiasthma activities.
Like the present findings, HWE of MX, many mushrooms extracts such as Agaricus bisporus, Cyclocybe aegerita, Cyclocybe cylindracea, and Tremella fuciformis were studied for the treatment or prophylaxis of type-2 diabetes–occurred when imbalanced insulin is producing due to the dysfunctions of insulin-secreting beta cells in the pancreas [87,88]. As mushrooms contain the least amount of digestible carbohydrates in the diet, they help patients to avoid high levels of glucose in the blood [89]. Bioactive metabolites isolated from medical mushrooms act as anti-hyperglycemic agents in diabetes treatment [90,91]. Inocutis levis and Antrodia cinnamomea extracts have been reported as a remedy for diabetes by increasing insulin resistance, insulin sensitivity, and glucose uptake in tissues and hence help to control blood glucose levels [88,92]. Grifola frondosa has been used as medicine for type 2 diabetes, and its extracts can lessen both hyperglycemia and hyperinsulinemia [93]. Moreover, SX-Fraction, ReishiMax capsules, and Tremella obtained from Ophiocordyceps sinensis and Tremella fuciformis, respectively are some examples of anti-diabetic products. These products enhance insulin sensitivity, decrease blood glucose levels, cholesterol levels, blood pressure, and body weight [88,94,95].
In the present findings, most of the compounds identified from the HWE of MX proved antimicrobial activity. A previous study also corroborated that oligosaccharides, polysaccharides, and polyphenols originating from HWE of MX showed antibacterial activity against Shiga-toxin-producing E. coli and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus [96]. Likewise, CE of MX has also resulted in higher antibacterial activities against S. aureus (ATCC 25923), MRSA (ATCC 33591), and K. pneumoniae (ATCC 13883) [97].
In this study, the HWE of MX illustrated the presence of anti-arthritic compounds. Most mushrooms are known to produce certain bioactive substances which are used as potential treatment strategies against cardiovascular diseases [98,99]. Yet, the mechanism of action/treatment of these bioactive substances remains obscure it might be due to the reduction in serum lipid, increase in bile acid secretion and LDL receptor expression, and change in phospholipid metabolism [100]. Other studies also recognized that mushrooms have molecules that can modify cholesterol absorption, metabolism, and also modulate the gene expression related to cholesterol homeostasis [99,101]. For instance, molecules extracted from Grifola frondosa, Hypsizigus marmoreus, and Pleurotus ostreatus were able to modulate the gene expression patterns of mice livers [88,102].
Table 2. GC-MS Analysis of M. xanthopus Hot Water Extract.
Table 2. GC-MS Analysis of M. xanthopus Hot Water Extract.
Peaks RT (min) PA (%) IUPAC Name and MF of Compounds Nature of Compounds Pharmacological and Biological Activities Ref.
1 6.42 8.11 1-Heptanol, 2,4-dimethyl-, (2S, 4R) -(-)- (C9H20O) Alcohol Antifungal [76,77]
2 7.28 4.34 Oxirane, 2,2’-(1,4-butanediyl) bias- (C8H14O2) Epoxides No activity reported
3 10.48 3.67 3-Methyl-2-(2-oxopropyl) furan (C8H10O2) Aldehyde Antioxidant, antimicrobial [103,104]
4 11.32 5.50 7-Hexadecenal, (Z)- (C16H30O) Fatty aldehyde Antiviral, antibacterial [105,106]
5 12.09 7.87 1,2,3,3a-Tetrahydro-7-methyl-10-4-methylphenyl) benzo [c] cyclopenta [f] -1,2-diazepine (C20H20N2) Aromatic organic heterocyclic No activity reported
6 12.81 4.41 Tetradecane, 2,6,10-trimethyl- (C17H36) Isoprenoid lipid Antifungal, antibacterial, and nematicidal [107]
7 13.19 4.19 Heptacosane (C27H56) N-Alkanes Antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant, antimalarial, antidermatophytic [108,109]
8 13.47 11.39 Didodecyl phthalate (C32H54O4) Phthalate Vasodilator, antihypertensive, uric acid excretion stimulant and diuretic, antimicrobial, antifouling [110,111]
9 14.18 1.17 Acetamide, N-[3-(10,11-dihydro-5H-dibenzo [a, d] cyclohepten-5-ylidene)propyl] -2,2,2-triflouro-N-methyl (C21H20F3NO) Unknown Reducing depressive symptoms
 [112]
10 14.97 13.76 2,2’-Divinylbenzophenone (C17H14O) Unknown Antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant [113]
11 15.95 14.18 Trans-1, 1’-Bibenzoindanylidene (C18H16) Unknown No activity reported
12 17.18 16.32 1-Monolinoleoylglycerol trimethylsilyl ether (C27H54O4Si2) Steroid Anti-diuretic, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, antimicrobial antioxidant, anti-arthritic, antiasthma [114,115]
MF: Molecular formula; RT: Retention time; PA: Peak area.

2.1.3. GC-MS Analysis of 70% ethanol extract of Termitomyces umkowaani

Fourteen (14) compounds were distinguished from 70% ethanol extract (EE) of Termitomyces umkowaani (TU) (Figure 1C, Table 3). These compounds were grouped into acids, alcohols, esters, ethers, ketones, aldehydes, and others. Of the 14 compounds, Tetracosamethyl-cyclododecasiloxane (18.90%), 12-methyl-E, E-2, 13-octadecadien-1-ol (15.90%), and 9, 12-octadecadienoic acid, ethyl ester (13.43%) were noticed abundantly (Table 3).
Many fatty acids (FAs) such as linolenic acid, butanedioic acid diethyl ester, octadecanoic acid, ethyl ester, h-hexadecanoic acid, hexadecanoic acid, ethyl ester, i-propyl hexadecanoate, 9, 12-octadecadienoic acid (Z, Z)-, 9, 12-octadecadienoic acid, ethyl ester, and 7-hexadecenal, (Z)- were noticed in the EE of TU. These FAs showed antimicrobial, antioxidant, antispasmodic, antitumor, anti-hypocholesterolemic, anti-inflammatory, nematicide, pesticide, anti-androgenic, immunostimulant, anti-acne, inhibitor, insecticide, antiarthritic, anti-eczemic hepatoprotective, antihistaminic, and anti-coronary [116,117,118]. Besides FAs, the EE of TU revealed other bioactive compounds including isopropyl linoleate (β-carotene), 1-monolinoleoylglycerol trimethylsilyl ether (steroid), and 12-Methyl-E, E-2, 13-octadecadien-1-ol (alcohol). These compounds also have antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiasthma, anti-diuretic, anti-inflammatory, and anti-diabetic properties. Linoleic acid and oleic acid exhibited an antimicrobial effect against Staphylococcus aureus, by inhibiting its cell growth and biofilm formation [119].
Hexadecanoic acid, ethyl ester (palmitic acid ester) found in the EE of TU has antioxidant, hypocholesterolemic, nematicide, pesticide, antiandrogenic, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, immunostimulant, hemolytic 5-α reductase inhibitor, lipooxygenase inhibitor activities. Palmitic acid (PLA) is ubiquitously present in dietary fat guaranteeing an average intake of about 20 g/d. The relatively high requirement in the human body (20–30% of total fatty acids), is justified by its relevant nutritional role [120]. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that palmitic acid impacted several signaling pathways including lipid metabolism in neurons. By contrast, overconsumption of palmitic acid could cause neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson's disease [121,122]. However, at low doses, PLA causes mild stress that can activate the stress response pathway to counteract deleterious damages such as oxidative stress and has a key role in the regulation of the longevity pathway [121]. Moreover, PLA is reported to possess antibacterial and anti-cholesterolaemic effects [123].
The 9, 12-Octadecadienoic acid (Z, Z)- (aka conjugated linoleic acid) was found in the EE of TU. Linolenic acid (LA) contains omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids. LA helps to reduce body inflammation and can also lower risk factors related to heart disease and arthritis. Omega-3 fatty acid transforms into prostaglandin E1 which has blood cholesterol-reducing properties and increases immunity [124,125]. Omega-3 fatty acid has a beneficial effect on cardiovascular health and reduces risk factors associated with strokes, heart attacks, and high blood pressure [125,126]. Unsaturated fatty acid levels are generally higher than saturated ones in mushrooms [127]. This polyunsaturated acid ensures the production of bile acids in the liver, prevents hormonal imbalance, and influences the production of prostaglandins [128].
Currently, LA has shown antimicrobial activity. In corroborative to the present findings, methanol and ethanol extracts of Termitomyces species revealed potent antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli, Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhimurium, Candida albicans of pathogenic microbes [129]. The dichloromethane extract of Termitomyces striatus also showed antimicrobial activity against bacteria (P. aeruginosa E. coli, B. subtilis, and S. aureus) and fungi (C. albicans and S. cerevisiae) [130]. Many Termitomyces species showed significant antimicrobial activity against different pathogenic microorganisms, for example, water extract of T. clypeatus, (Candida albicans, Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhi, and Staphylococcus aureus), water extract of T. heimii, (Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas sp., Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, Ralstonia sp., Salmonella sp., and Streptococcus sp.) [24].
Fatty acids such as octadecanoic acid, ethyl ester, h-hexadecanoic acid, 9, 12-octadecadienoic acid (Z, Z)-, and 9, 12-octadecadienoic acid, ethyl ester obtained from the EE of TU have shown hypocholesterolemic activity. Edible mushrooms possess high dietary fiber levels and other components such as eritadenine, guanylic acid, and ergosterol which play a significant role in the prevention of nutrition-related diseases (e.g. atherosclerosis) by lowering hypocholesterolemic levels [131,132]. Dietary intake of TU was reported to lower serum levels of total cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol [133]. Fed diets mixed with mushrooms reduced levels of total cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol, and triglycerides in rats [128]. Polysaccharides and fibers obtained from water extract of edible mushrooms also lowered the serum triglyceride concentration in hypertensive and hyperlipidaemic rats by altering lipid metabolism and by inhibiting both the accumulation of liver lipids and the elevation of serum lipids [134].
Table 3. GC-MS Analysis of T. umkowaani 70% Ethanol Extract.
Table 3. GC-MS Analysis of T. umkowaani 70% Ethanol Extract.
Peaks RT (min) PA (%) IUPAC Name and MF of Compounds Nature of Compounds Pharmacological and Biological Activities Ref.
1 4.88 5.68 Butanedioic acid diethyl ester (C8H14O4) Fatty acid Antimicrobial, antispasmodic, and anti-inflammatory [135]
2 7.87 4.11 Octadecanoic acid, ethyl ester (C20H40O2) Fatty acid esters Hypocholesterolemic 5-alpha reductase inhibitor, lubricant, and antimicrobial [11,136]
3 9.86 2.45 h-Hexadecanoic acid (C16H32O2) Fatty acid (aka palmitic acid) Antioxidant, hypocholesterolemic, nematicide, pesticide, antiandrogenic, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, immunostimulant, hemolytic 5-α reductase inhibitor, lipooxygenase inhibitor [3,137]
4 10.04 7.90 Hexadecanoic acid, ethyl ester (C18H36O2) Fatty acid ester (aka palmitic acid ester) Antioxidant, hypocholesterolemic, nematicide, pesticide, anti-androgenic, hemolytic 5-α reductase inhibitor [3]
5 10.24 8.78 i-Propyl hexadecanoate (C19H38O2) Fatty acid No activity reported
6 10.97 9.98 9,12-Octadecadienoic acid (Z, Z)-
(C18H32O2)		 Fatty acid (aka conjugated linoleic acid) Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, hypocholesterolemic, antimicrobial, antitumor, insecticide, antiarthritic, antieczemic hepatoprotective, antiandrogenic, nematicide, antihistaminic, antiacne, hemolytic 5-α reductase inhibitor, anti-coronary [3,80,137,138,139]
7 11.09 13.43 9,12-Octadecadienoic acid, ethyl ester (C20H36O2) Fatty acid ester (aka omega-6) Hypocholesterolemic, nematicide, antiacne, antiarthritic, hepatoprotective, antimicrobial, antiandrogenic, hemolytic 5-α reductase inhibitor, antihistaminic, anti-coronary, insecticide, antieczemic [3,70,80]
8 11.27 0.89 Isopropyl linoleate (C21H38O2) β-carotene Antimicrobial, antioxidant [22,43,140,141]
9 13.19 1.50 1-Monolinoleoylglycerol trimethylsilyl ether (C27H54O4Si2) Steroid Antimicrobial, antiasthma, anti-diuretic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-diabetic [114]
10 14.18 15.90 12-Methyl-E, E-2, 13-Octadecadien-1-ol (C19H36O) Alcohol Antimicrobial [142]
11 14.97 1.12 7-Hexadecenal, (Z)- (C16H30O) Fatty aldehyde Antiviral, antibacterial [105,106]
12 15.95 3.60 1, 2-Benzenedicarboxylic acid, diisooctyl ester (C24H38O4) Ester Antimicrobial, antifouling [143]
13 17.20 18.90 Tetracosamethyl-cyclododeca siloxane (C24H72O12Si12) Siloxane No activity reported
14 18.53 5.76 Heptasiloxane hexadecamethyl (C16H48O6Si7) Organosiloxane No activity reported
MF: Molecular formula; RT: Retention time; PA: Peak area.

2.1.4. GC-MS Analysis of chloroform extract of Trametes elegans

In the chloroform extract (CE) of Trametes elegans (TRE), the presence of three (3) compounds was detected (Figure 1D, Table 4). The identified compounds include n-hexadecanoic acid (16.89%), oleic acid (72.90%), and octadecanoic acid (10.21%). These compounds are grouped under essential fatty acids which are playing important roles in the anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and hypocholesterolemic activities. The deficiency of linoleic acid, typical essential fatty acid, in the diet, causes mild skin scaling, hair loss [21], and poor wound healing in rats [22].
The majority of the identified compounds were reported to have antimicrobial, antioxidant, anticancer, anti-androgenic, hypocholesterolemic, nematicide, pesticide, and anti-biofilm formation properties (Table 4). These comprehensive activities might be correlated with the presence of many compounds such as tocopherols, flavonoids, polyphenols, tannins, and lignins in the extract [144]. The antioxidant activity of the TRE extract is acting by blocking the reactions of the oxidizing chain of free radicals in the molecules and by reducing the oxidative damage caused by oxidative stress [145]. Antioxidants protect our bodies from diabetes, cancer, aging, atherosclerosis, and other severe health issues [146].
Three essential fatty acids isolated from the CE of TRE have shown anti-biofilm formation activity. Fungal metabolites have promising anti-quorum-sensing activities for the reduction of drug resistance by inhibiting the biofilm formation of pathogenic microbes. Previous studies also confirmed that many edible mushrooms are sources of many secondary metabolites which have biofilm inhibitory activities. For instance, coprinuslactone, roussoellenic acid, and microporenic acid A derived from Coprinus comatus, Roussoella sp, and Kenyan basidiomycete, respectively have shown active anti-biofilm inhibitory activity against Pseudomonas, Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans [147,148]. Biofilm inhibitors enhance the activity of the antibiotics by increasing their ability to penetrate the biofilms [149].
The CE of TRE possesses anticancer activity. Several promising anticancer drugs derived from fungi are currently in the preclinical and clinical developmental stages [150]. For example, irofulven is a semi-synthetic drug derived from illudin S, a natural toxin isolated from Omphalotus illudens [151]. Irofulven has been evaluated in phase I and II clinical trials with promising results against the brain and central nervous system, breast, blood, colon, sarcoma, prostate, lungs, ovarian, and pancreas cancers [152,153]. Aphidicolin is also another anticancer compound isolated from Akanthomyces muscarius and Nigrospora sphaerica fungal species. Although, aphidicolin targets the specific binding site on DNA polymerase α, δ, and ε enzymes, it has not yet been marketed as an anticancer drug [88].
The n-hexadecanoic acid, one of the fatty acids, identified from CE of TRE revealed nematicidal activity (Table 4). Although effective chemical nematicides (e.g. methyl bromide) have been marketed, they can cause serious problems to the environment by killing all life forms in the soil and contributing to the depletion of the ozone layer. Recently there have been great efforts in both academia and industry to find ecologically viable alternatives [88]. Several nematotoxic compounds such as fatty acids, alkaloids, peptide compounds, terpenes, condensed tannins, phenolic compounds, and proteases have been identified in edible mushrooms [154]. Linoleic acid is one of the nematicidal compounds that have been isolated from Arthrobotrys species and other fungi [155]. On the other hand, Pleurotus pulmonarius and Hericium coralloides are two basidiomycetes that have exhibited strong nematicidal effects against Caenorhabditis elegans [156]. Metabolites (3, 14′-bihispidinyl and hispidin and phelligridin L) with moderate nematicidal activity against Caenorhabditis elegans have been reported from a Sanghuangporus sp. collected in Kenya [157]. Chaetoglobosin A and its derivate 19-O-acetylchaetoglobosin A isolated from Ijuhya vitellina are recently demonstrated nematicidal activity against eggs of Heterodera filipjevi [158].
Table 4. GC-MS Analysis of T. elegans Chloroform Extract.
Table 4. GC-MS Analysis of T. elegans Chloroform Extract.
Peaks RT (min) PA (%) IUPAC Name and MF of Compounds Nature of compounds Pharmacological and Biological Activities Ref.
1 9.86 16.89 n-Hexadecanoic acid (C16H32O2) Fatty Acid Antioxidant, antiandrogenic, hypocholesterolemic, nematicide, pesticide, antibiofilm formation [137,159]
2 10.97 72.90 Oleic acid (C18H34O2) Fatty Acid Antioxidant, apoptotic activity in tumor cells, anticancer, antibiofilm formation [159,160]
3 11.12 10.21 Octadecanoic acid (C18H36O2) Fatty Acid Antimicrobial, antibiofilm formation [161,159]
MF: Molecular formula; RT: Retention time; PA: Peak area.

2.1.5. GC-MS Analysis of hot water extract of Trametes versicolor

Eight (8) compounds were identified from hot water extract (HWE) of Trametes versicolor (TRV) (Figure 1E, Table 5). The most dominant compounds were phenol, 2, 6-bis (1, 1-dimethyl ethyl)-4-methyl, methylcarbamate (26.56%), 1-mono-linoleoyl glycerol trimethyl silyl ether (22.40%), and 1, 2-benzene dicarboxylic acid, diisooctyl ester (19.10%).
9, 12-Octadecadienoic (Z, Z)-, a polyunsaturated fatty acid, found in the TRV has shown anticancer activity. The TRV extract contains anticancer and immuno-stimulatory compounds including polysaccharides, β-glucans, lignins, and ergosta-7, 22-dien-3 beta-ol [162]. polysaccharides isolated from TRV extract demonstrated cytotoxic activity against cancer cells [36]. Polysaccharides containing peptides not only greatly uplift the quality of life of cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy or radiotherapy but also contribute to prolonging survival and bettering the quality of life in patients afflicted with hepatitis, hyperlipidemia, and other chronic diseases [36,162]. An aqueous extract of TRV prohibited migration and invasion of 4T1 breast cancer cells and downregulated the activities of tumor necrosis factor-α, interferon-γ, interleukin-2, interleukin-6, and interleukin-12) inducing roles in xenograft-bearing mice [163]. The TRV protein-bound polysaccharides exhibited tumor necrosis factor-α-dependent anti-proliferative activity toward MCF-7 cells and augmented the proliferative response of blood lymphocytes which was associated with interleukin-6 and interleukin-1β mRNA up-regulation [164].
Table 5. GC-MS Analysis of T. versicolor Hot Water Extract.
Table 5. GC-MS Analysis of T. versicolor Hot Water Extract.
Peaks RT (min) PA (%) IUPAC Name and MF of Compounds Nature of compounds Pharmacological and Biological Activities Ref.
1 6.42 26.56 Phenol, 2,6-bis (1,1-dimethyl ethyl)-4- methyl, methylcarbamate (C17H27NO2) Phenol Antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, oral anesthetic/analgesic, temporarily treat pharyngitis [85,86]
2 9.86 2.20 n-Hexadecanoic acid (C16H32O2) Palmitic acid Antioxidant, nematicide, pesticide, hypocholesterolemic, antiandrogenic [165]
3 10.73 3.40 Nonadecane (C19H40) Hydrocarbon No activity reported
4 11.12 8.41 9,12-Octadecadienoic (Z, Z)- (C18H32O2)
 Polyunsaturated fatty acid Anti-inflammatory, hypocholesterolemic, antitumor, hepatoprotective, nematicide, insecticide, antibiofilm formation, antihistaminic, antieczemic, antiacne, hemolytic 5-α reductase inhibitor, antiandrogenic, antiarthritic, anti-coronary, antimicrobial [114,159,166,167,168]
5 11.34 5.73 7-Hexadecenal, (Z)- (C16H30O) Fatty aldehyde Antiviral, antibacterial [105,106]
6 13.19 12.20 9,12,15-Octadecatrienoic acid, 2-[(trimethylsilyl) oxy]-1-[[(trimethylsilyl) oxy] methyl] ethyl ester (Z, Z, Z)- (C27H52O4Si2) polyunsaturated fatty acid Antimicrobial, antioxidant
[169,170]
7 15.97 22.40 1-Momolinoleoylglycerol trimethylsilyl ether (C27H54O4Si2) Antimicrobial, antiasthma, anti-diuretic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-diabetic [114]
8 18.11 19.10 1,2-Benzenedicarboxylic acid, diisooctyl ester (C24H38O4) Benzoic acid ester Biopesticides, antibacterial [171,172]
MF: Molecular formula; RT: Retention time; PA: Peak area.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Wild Mushrooms Collection and Identification

Mushrooms were collected from Arabuko-Sokoke and Kakamega National Reserved Forests. They were randomly collected from tree barks or other substrates (wood, soil, or leaf litter). They were wrapped in aluminum foil and placed in an ice box to maintain their structure and moisture content. Then, they were identified by both morphological and molecular methods. Specimens were identified using spore print color (white, black, brown, pink, purple, etc.), macroscopic, and microscopic (shape and size of basidiospores, basidia, cystidia, and generative hyphae) methods [173]. Moreover, the morphological characteristics of the specimens were compared to Species Fungorum and related literature [174].
Specimens were dried in an electric drying oven at 50 °C for 168 h [175,176]. After drying, gDNA was extracted from the dried fruiting body of mushrooms using the Cetyl Trimethyl Ammonium Bromide (CTAB) method [12]. By designing specific markers, highly conserved regions of the mushroom rDNA genes (i.e., ITS1 and ITS4) were amplified using the PCR amplification method [177]. Amplified PCR products were separated using gel electrophoresis and visualized under UV light. The presence and the amount of each PCR product were estimated by comparing it against the control (1kb DNA ladder).

3.2. Extraction of Bioactive Compounds

Bioactive compounds were extracted using chloroform, 70% ethanol, and hot water solvents as per the previous studies with some modifications [178,179,180,181]. A 100 g of powdered mushroom was mixed with each 1L of 99.8% chloroform (Sigma Aldrich, USA), 70% ethanol (99.9%) (ECP Ltd, New Zealand), and distilled hot water (heated at 60 °C for 2 h.) separately in an Erlenmeyer flask at 25 oC and shaken using an incubator shaker (SK-727, Amerex instruments, inc., USA) at 150 rpm for 72 h. The extracts were centrifuged at 3000 rpm (Eppendorf centrifuge 5810 R, Germany) for 15 min, filtered with Whatman No. 1 filter paper, and concentrated and dried by a rotary evaporator (EV311, Lab Tech Co., LTD, UK) at 50 oC. The extracts were kept in a –80 oC deep freezer and freeze-dried (mrc freeze dryer, Model, FDL-10N-50-8M). Finally, crude extracts were stored in a 4 °C refrigerator in amber-colored bottles for further analyses.

3.3. GC-MS Analysis of Extracts

The GC-MS analysis was conducted using a silica capillary column (30×0.25 mm ID×1 µm, composed of 100% Dimethylpolysiloxane) and operated in an electron impact mode at 70 eV (Agilent Scientific, Palo Alto, CA). Helium (99.999%) was a carrier gas at a constant flow of 1 mL/min. Extracts were dissolved in dichloromethane and 1 µL was injected into the column at 250 °C and ion-source temperature 280 °C. The oven temperature was programmed at 110 °C for 2 min. The temperature was increased from 110 °C to 200 °C (10 °C/min) then to 280 °C (5 °C/min) and finally ended at 280 °C for 9 min. The total run time was 28 min. The compounds were identified from the MS data, by comparing the spectra of known compounds stored in the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) library with the mass spectrometry (MS) of unknown compounds. The relative % amount of each compound was calculated by comparing its average peak area to the total areas. Measurement of peak areas and data processing were carried out by Turbo-Mass-OCPTVS-Demo SPL software [182].

3.4. Data Analysis

All the tests, experiments, and measurements were carried out in triplicate. Microsoft Excel Package was used to analyze quantitative data.

4. Conclusions

These mushroom metabolites have many bioactive compounds that possess antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, anticancer, hypocholesterolemic, anti-hypertensive, nematicide, pesticide, and anti-biofilm formation properties. The wild mushroom extracts are rich in essential fatty acids and other many bioactive compounds which could have high potential industrial and biological activities. These compounds can be deployed to discover novel drugs against various cancers. It is recommended that the active ingredients are isolated and subjected to further tests to compare their usefulness in the prevention and treatment of various conditions. More research is necessary to determine which mushroom extracts are most beneficial in treating various cancers. The mechanisms of action for active ingredients in many extract from medicinal mushrooms, rigorous chemical analyses as well an understanding of the in vivo pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of individual compounds is needed. Future investigation is needed to clarify the long-term effects of taking medicinal mushroom products with other drugs.

Supplementary Materials

Not applicable.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, D.BS. and G.G.; methodology, G.G.; validation, G.G.; formal analysis, G.G.; investigation, G.G.; writing—original draft preparation, G.G.; writing—review and editing, D.BS. and G.G.; supervision, D.BS; project administration, G.G.; funding acquisition, G.G. and. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Pan African University (AU/0003/2017) and Mekelle University (MU/Large/ recurrent/ 0003/002012).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Sample Availability

Not applicable.

Abbreviations/Acronyms

AAJ Auricularia auricula-judae
CE Chloroform extract
EE 70% ethanol extract
FAs Fatty acids
GC-MS Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry
HWE Hot water extract
LA Linolenic acid
LDL Low-density lipoprotein
MF Molecular formula
MX Microporus xanthopus
PA Peak area
PLA Palmitic acid
RT Retention time
TRE Trametes elegans
TRV Trametes versicolor
TU Termitomyces umkowaani

References

  1. El-Ramady, H.; Abdalla, N.; Badgar, K.; Llanaj, X.; Törős, G.; Hajdú, P.; Eid, Y.; Prokisch, J. Edible Mushrooms for Sustainable and Healthy Human Food: Nutritional and Medicinal Attributes. Sustainability 2022, 14, 1–30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Dulay, R.M.R.; Batangan, J.N.; Kalaw, S.P.; De Leon, A.M.; Cabrera, E.C.; Kimura, K.; Eguchi, F.; Reyes, R.G. Records of Wild Mushrooms in the Philippines: A Review. J. Appl. Biol. Biotechnol. 2023, 11, 11–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Adeoye-isijola, M.O.; Olajuyigbe, O.O.; Gbolagade, S.G.; Coopoosamy, R.M. Bioactive Compounds in Ethanol Extract of Lentinus Squarrosulus Mont - A Nigerian Medicinal Macrofungus. African J. Tradit. Complement. Altern. Med. 2018, 15, 42–50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Griffiths, S.; Saccomanno, B.; de Wit, P.J.G.M.; Collemare, J. Regulation of Secondary Metabolite Production in the Fungal Tomato Pathogen Cladosporium Fulvum. FUNGAL Genet. Biol. 2015, 84, 52–61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  5. Venturella, G.; Ferraro, V.; Cirlincione, F.; Gargano, M.L. Medicinal Mushrooms: Bioactive Compounds, Use, and Clinical Trials. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, 1–31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Lübeck, M.; Lübeck, P.S. Fungal Cell Factories for Efficient and Sustainable Production of Proteins and Peptides. Microorganisms 2022, 10, 1–24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  7. Karaca, B.; Çöleri Cihan, A.; Akata, I.; Altuner, E.M. Anti-Biofilm and Antimicrobial Activities of Five Edible and Medicinal Macrofungi Samples on Some Biofilm Producing Multi Drug Resistant Enterococcus Strains. Turkish J. Agric. - Food Sci. Technol. 2020, 8, 69–80. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Alves, M.J.; Ferreira, R.I.C.F.; Lourenço, I.; Costa, E.; Martins, A.; Pintado, M. Wild Mushroom Extracts as Inhibitors of Bacterial Biofilm Formation. Pathogens 2014, 3, 667–679. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Mensah-agyei, G.O.; Ayeni, K.I. GC-MS Analysis of Bioactive Compounds and Evaluation of Antimicrobial Activity of the Extracts of Daedalea Elegans: A Nigerian Mushroom. African J. Microbiol. Res. 2020, 14, 204–210. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Chaudhary, R.; Tripathy, A. Isolation and Identification of Bioactive Compounds from Irpex Lacteus Wild Fleshy Fungi. J. Pharm. Sci. Res. 2015, 7, 424–434. [Google Scholar]
  11. Mishra, V.; Tomar, S.; Yadav, P.; Vishwakarma, S.; Singh, M.P. Elemental Analysis, Phytochemical Screening and Evaluation of Antioxidant, Antibacterial and Anticancer Activity of Pleurotus Ostreatus through In Vitro and In Silico Approaches. Metabolites 2022, 12, 1–25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Dávila Giraldo, L.R.; Pérez Jaramillo, C.C.; Méndez Arteaga, J.J.; Murillo-Arango, W. Nutritional Value and Antioxidant, Antimicrobial and Cytotoxic Activity of Wild Macrofungi. Microorganisms 2023, 11, 1–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Adamska, E.; Slusarczyk, J.; Czerwik-marcinkowska, J. Fungi and Algae as Sources of Medicinal and Other Biologically Active Compounds : A Review. Nutrients 2021, 13, 1–24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Falade, O.E.; Oyetayo, V.O.; Awala, S.I. Evaluation of the Mycochemical Composition and Antimicrobial Potency of Wild Macrofungus, Rigidoporus Microporus ( Sw ). J. Phytopharm. 2017, 6, 115–125. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Borthakur, M.; Gurung, A.B.; Bhattacharjee, A. Analysis of the Bioactive Metabolites of the Endangered Mexican Lost Fungi Campanophyllum – A Report from India Analysis of the Bioactive Metabolites of the Endangered Mexican Lost. Mycobiology 2020, 48, 58–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  16. Wasser, S. Medicinal Mushroom Science: Current Perspectives, Advances, Evidences, and Challenges. Biomed. J. 2014, 37, 345. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Oyetayo, V.O.; Akingbesote, E.T. Microbial Biosystems Assessment of the Antistaphylococcal Properties and Bioactive Compounds of Raw and Fermented Trametes Polyzona ( Pers.) Justo Extracts. Microb. Biosyst. 2022, 7, 1–7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Assemie, A. The Effect of Edible Mushroom on Health and Their Biochemistry. Int. J. Microbiol. 2022, 2022, 1–7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Islam, T.; Ganesan, K.; Xu, B. Insights into Health-Promoting Effects of Jew’s Ear (Auricularia Auricula-Judae). Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2021, 114, 552–569. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Dai, Y.; Ma, Y.; Liu, X.; Gao, R.; Min, H.; Zhang, S.; Hu, S. Formation Optimization, Characterization and Antioxidant Activity of Auricularia Auricula-Judae Polysaccharide Nanoparticles Obtained via Antisolvent Precipitation. Molecules 2022, 27, 1–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  21. Islam, T.; Yao, F.; Kang, W.; Lu, L.; Xu, B. A Systematic Study on Mycochemical Profiles, Antioxidant, and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of 30 Varieties of Jew’s Ear (Auricularia Auricula-Judae). Food Sci. Hum. Wellness 2022, 11, 781–794. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Herawati, E.; Ramadhan, R.; Ariyani, F.; Marjenah; Kusuma, I.W.; Suwinarti, W.; Mardji, D.; Amirta, R.; Arung, E.T. Phytochemical Screening and Antioxidant Activity of Wild Mushrooms Growing in Tropical Regions. Biodiversitas 2021, 22, 4716–4721. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Gurav, K.N.; Patil, V.P. Qualitative Analysis of Bioactive Components in Microporus Xanthopus ( Fr.) Kuntze. Biol. Forum – An Int. J. 2023, 15, 70–82. [Google Scholar]
  24. Paloi, S.; Kumla, J.; Paloi, B.P.; Srinuanpan, S.; Hoijang, S.; Karunarathna, S.C.; Acharya, K.; Suwannarach, N.; Lumyong, S. Termite Mushrooms (Termitomyces), a Potential Source of Nutrients and Bioactive Compounds Exhibiting Human Health Benefits: A Review. J. Fungi 2023, 9, 1–31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Rava, M.; Ali, R.; Das, S. Taxonomic and Phylogenetic Study of Termitomyces Entolomoides in Western Assam. Int. J. Sci. Res. Biol. Sci. 2019, 6, 84–88. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Tibuhwa, D.D. Termitomyces Species from Tanzania, Their Cultural Properties and Unequalled Basidiospores. J. Biol. Life Sci. 2012, 3, 1–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Sathiya Seelan, J.S.; Shu Yee, C.; She Fui, F.; Dawood, M.; Tan, Y.S.; Kim, M.J.; Park, M.S.; Lim, Y.W. New Species of Termitomyces (Lyophyllaceae, Basidiomycota) from Sabah (Northern Borneo), Malaysia. Mycobiology 2020, 48, 95–103. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Karun, N.C.; Sridhar, K.R. Occurrence and Distribution of Termitomyces (Basidiomycota, Agaricales ) in the Western Ghats and on the West Coast of India. Czech Mycol. 2013, 65, 233–254. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Olou, B.A.; Krah, F.S.; Piepenbring, M.; Yorou, N.S.; Langer, E. Diversity of Trametes (Polyporales, Basidiomycota) in Tropical Benin and Description of New Species Trametes Parvispora. MycoKeys 2020, 65, 25–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Bains, A.; Chawla, P. In Vitro Bioactivity, Antimicrobial and Anti-Inflammatory Efficacy of Modified Solvent Evaporation Assisted Trametes Versicolor Extract. 3 Biotech 2020, 10, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Awala, S.I.; Oyetayo, V.O. The Phytochemical and Antimicrobial Properties of the Extracts Obtained from Trametes Elegans Collected from Osengere in Ibadan, Nigeria. Jordan J. Biol. Sci. 2015, 8, 289–299. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Kanakasundar, A.; Mazlan, N.B.; Ishak, R.B. Trametes Elegans: Sources and Potential Medicinal and Food Applications. Malaysian J. Med. Heal. Sci. 2023, 19, 348–353. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Jędrzejewski, T.; Pawlikowska, M.; Sobocińska, J.; Wrotek, S. COVID-19 and Cancer Diseases—The Potential of Coriolus Versicolor Mushroom to Combat Global Health Challenges. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24, 1–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Jing, Y.; Zhang, S.; Li, M.; Ma, Y.; Zheng, Y.; Zhang, D.; Wu, L. Research Progress on the Extraction, Structure, and Bioactivities of Polysaccharides from Coriolus Versicolor. Foods 2022, 11, 1–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Kamiyama, M. Antioxidant/Anti-Inflammatory Activities and Chemical Composition of Extracts from the Mushroom Trametes Versicolor. Int. J. Nutr. Food Sci. 2013, 2, 85–91. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Habtemariam, S. Trametes Versicolor (Synn. Coriolus Versicolor) Polysaccharides in Cancer Therapy: Targets and Efficacy. Biomedicines 2020, 8, 1–26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Yeung, J.H.K.; Or, P.M.Y. Polysaccharide Peptides from Coriolus Versicolor Competitively Inhibit Model Cytochrome P450 Enzyme Probe Substrates Metabolism in Human Liver Microsomes. Phytomedicine 2012, 19, 457–463. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Bristy, A.T.; Islam, T.; Ahmed, R.; Hossain, J.; Reza, H.M.; Jain, P. Evaluation of Total Phenolic Content, HPLC Analysis, and Antioxidant Potential of Three Local Varieties of Mushroom: A Comparative Study. Int. J. Food Sci. 2022, 2022, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Harhaji, L.; Mijatović, S.; Maksimović-Ivanić, D.; Stojanović, I.; Momčilović, M.; Maksimović, V.; Tufegdžić, S.; Marjanović, Ž.; Mostarica-Stojković, M.; Vučinić, Ž.; et al. Anti-Tumor Effect of Coriolus Versicolor Methanol Extract against Mouse B16 Melanoma Cells: In Vitro and in Vivo Study. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2008, 46, 1825–1833. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Islam, T.; Ganesan, K.; Xu, B. Insights into Health-Promoting Effects of Jew’s Ear (Auricularia Auricula-Judae). Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2021, 114, 552–569. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Al, M.; Thangavel, N.; Ali, A.; Shar, J.; Ali, B.; Alhabsi, F.; Mosa, S.; Ghazwani, S.; Alhazmi, H.A.; Najmi, A. Establishing Gerger ( Eruca Sativa ) Leaves as Functional Food by GC-MS and In-Vitro Anti-Lipid Peroxidation Assays. J. Food Nutr. Res. 2020, 8, 441–449. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Ma, S.; Huang, M.; Fu, Y.; Qiao, M.; Li, Y. How Closely Does Induced Agarwood’s Biological Activity Resemble That of Wild Agarwood? Molecules 2023, 28, 1–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Heleno, S.A.; Barros, L.; João, M.; Martins, A.; Ferreira, I.C.F.R. Tocopherols Composition of Portuguese Wild Mushrooms with Antioxidant Capacity. Food Chem. 2010, 119, 1443–1450. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Gebreyohannes, G.; Nyerere, A.; Bii, C.; Sbhatu, D.B. Investigation of Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Activities of Different Extracts of Auricularia and Termitomyces Species of Mushrooms. Sci. World J. 2019, 2019, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Pak, S.J.; Chen, F.; Ma, L.; Hu, X.; Ji, J. Functional Perspective of Black Fungi (Auricularia Auricula): Major Bioactive Components, Health Benefits and Potential Mechanisms. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2021, 114, 245–261. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Gebreyohannes, G.; Nyerere, A.; Bii, C.; Sbhatu, D.B. Investigation of Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Activities of Different Extracts of Auricularia and Termitomyces Species of Mushrooms. Sci. World J. 2019, 2019, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Bandara, A.R.; Rapior, S.; Mortimer, P.E.; Kakumyan, P.; Hyde, K.D.; Xu, J. A Review of the Polysaccharide, Protein and Selected Nutrient Content of Auricularia, and Their Potential Pharmacological Value. Mycosphere 2019, 10, 579–607. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Arsianti, A.; Rabbani, A.; Bahtiar, A.; Azizah, N.N.; Nadapdap, L.D.; Fajrin, M.; Arsianti, A.; Rabbani, A.; Nadapdap, L.D. Phytochemistry, Antioxidant Activity and Cytotoxicity Evaluation of Black-White Fungus Auricularia Sp. against Breast MCF-7 Cancer Cells. Pharmacogn. J. 2022, 14, 1–7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Caz, V.; Gil-Ramírez, A.; Largo, C.; Tabernero, M.; Santamaría, M.; Martín-Hernández, R.; Marín, F.R.; Reglero, G.; Soler-Rivas, C. Modulation of Cholesterol-Related Gene Expression by Dietary Fiber Fractions from Edible Mushrooms. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2015, 63, 7371–7380. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Liu, X.; Luo, D.; Guan, J.; Chen, J.; Xu, X. Mushroom Polysaccharides with Potential in Anti-Diabetes: Biological Mechanisms, Extraction, and Future Perspectives: A Review. Front. Nutr. 2022, 9, 1–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Hu, J.L.; Nie, S.P.; Xie, M.Y. Antidiabetic Mechanism of Dietary Polysaccharides Based on Their Gastrointestinal Functions. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2018, 66, 4781–4786. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  52. Hu, X.; Liu, C.; Wang, X.; Jia, D.; Lu, W.; Sun, X.; Liu, Y.; Yuan, L. Hpyerglycemic and Anti-Diabetic Nephritis Activities of Polysaccharides Separated from Auricularia Auricular in Diet-Streptozotocin-Induced Diabetic Rats. Exp. Ther. Med. 2017, 13, 352–358. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  53. Fang, Q.; Hu, J.; Nie, Q.; Nie, S. Effects of Polysaccharides on Glycometabolism Based on Gut Microbiota Alteration. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2019, 92, 65–70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Sawangwan, T.; Wansanit, W.; Pattani, L.; Noysang, C. Study of Prebiotic Properties from Edible Mushroom Extraction. Agric. Nat. Resour. 2018, 52, 519–524. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Zhao, Y.; Wang, L.; Zhang, D.; Li, R.; Cheng, T.; Zhang, Y.; Liu, X.; Wong, G.; Tang, Y.; Wang, H.; et al. Comparative Transcriptome Analysis Reveals Relationship of Three Major Domesticated Varieties of Auricularia Auricula-Judae. Sci. Rep. 2019, 9, 1–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Zhang, T.; Zhao, W.; Xie, B.; Liu, H. Effects of Auricularia Auricula and Its Polysaccharide on Diet-Induced Hyperlipidemia Rats by Modulating Gut Microbiota. J. Funct. Foods 2020, 72, 104038. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Pan, Y.; Chen, X. Assessment of Auricularia Cornea Var. Li. Polysaccharides Potential to Improve Hepatic, Antioxidation and Intestinal Microecology in Rats with Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease. Front. N 2023, 10, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Khan, I.; Bai, Y.; Zha, L.; Ullah, N.; Ullah, H.; Shah, S.R.H.; Sun, H.; Zhang, C. Mechanism of the Gut Microbiota Colonization Resistance and Enteric Pathogen Infection. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol. 2021, 11, 1–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Morrison, D.J.; Preston, T. Formation of Short Chain Fatty Acids by the Gut Microbiota and Their Impact on Human Metabolism. Gut Microbes 2016, 7, 189–200. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Den Besten, G.; Van Eunen, K.; Groen, A.K.; Venema, K.; Reijngoud, D.J.; Bakker, B.M. The Role of Short-Chain Fatty Acids in the Interplay between Diet, Gut Microbiota, and Host Energy Metabolism. J. Lipid Res. 2013, 54, 2325–2340. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Mirończuk-Chodakowska, I.; Kujawowicz, K.; Witkowska, A.M. Beta-Glucans from Fungi: Biological and Health-Promoting Potential in the Covid-19 Pandemic Era. Nutrients 2021, 13, 1–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Vallée, M.; Lu, X.; Narciso, J.O.; Li, W.; Qin, Y.; Brennan, M.A.; Brennan, C.S. Physical, Predictive Glycaemic Response and Antioxidative Properties of Black Ear Mushroom (Auricularia Auricula) Extrudates. Plant Foods Hum. Nutr. 2017, 72, 301–307. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  63. Zhang, Y.; Zeng, Y.; Men, Y.; Zhang, J.; Liu, H.; Sun, Y. Structural Characterization and Immunomodulatory Activity of Exopolysaccharides from Submerged Culture of Auricularia Auricula-Judae. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2018, 115, 978–984. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  64. 64. Iebba V, Totino V, Gagliardi A, Santangelo F, Cacciotti F, Trancassini M, Mancini C, Cicerone C, Corazziari E, Pantanella F, Schippa S. Xue, Y.; Wei, J.; Huo, X.; Gong, Y.; Zhang, H.; Han, R.; Chen, Y.; Chen, H.; Chen, J. Eubiosis and Dysbiosis: The Two Sides of the Microbiota. New Microbiol. 2016, 39, 1–12.
  65. Liuzzi, G.M.; Petraglia, T.; Latronico, T.; Crescenzi, A.; Rossano, R. Antioxidant Compounds from Edible Mushrooms as Potential Candidates for Treating Age-Related Neurodegenerative Diseases. Nutrients 2023, 15, 1–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  66. Yu, T.; Wu, Q.; Liang, B.; Wang, J.; Wu, D.; Shang, X. The Current State and Future Prospects of Auricularia Auricula’s Polysaccharide Processing Technology Portfolio. Molecules 2023, 28, 1–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  67. Zhao, S.; Gao, Q.; Rong, C.; Wang, S.; Zhao, Z.; Liu, Y.; Xu, J. Immunomodulatory Effects of Edible and Medicinal Mushrooms and Their Bioactive Immunoregulatory Products. J. Fungi 2020, 6, 1–37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. Ma, Z.; Wang, J.; Zhang, L.; Zhang, Y.; Ding, K. Evaluation of Water Soluble β-d-Glucan from Auricularia Auricular-Judae as Potential Anti-Tumor Agent. Carbohydr. Polym. 2010, 80, 977–983. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  69. Falowo, A.B.; Muchenje, V.; Hugo, A.; Aiyegoro, O.A.; Fayemi, P.O. Actividades Antioxidantes de Extractos de Hoja de Moringa Oleifera L. y Bidens Pilosa L. y Sus Efectos En La Estabilidad Oxidativa de Ternera Cruda Picada Durante El Almacenamiento En Frío. CYTA - J. Food 2017, 15, 249–256. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  70. Roy, P.; Amdekar, S.; Kumar, A.; Singh, V. Preliminary Study of the Antioxidant Properties of Flowers and Roots of Pyrostegia Venusta (Ker Gawl) Miers. BMC Complement. Altern. Med. 2011, 11, 2–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Enisoglu-Atalay, V.; Atasever-Arslan, B.; Yaman, B.; Cebecioglu, R.; Kul, A.; Ozilhan, S.; Ozen, F.; Cata, T. Chemical and Molecular Characterization of Metabolites from Flavobacterium Sp. PLoS One 2018, 13, 1–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  72. Health, S.; Technical, R.; Agency, U.S.E.P. Provisional Peer-Reviewed Toxicity Values for Azodicarbonamide; 2014.
  73. Huang, L.; Zhu, X.; Zhou, S.; Cheng, Z.; Shi, K.; Zhang, C.; Shao, H. Phthalic Acid Esters: Natural Sources and Biological Activities. Toxins (Basel). 2021, 13, 1–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  74. Sympli, H.D. Estimation of Drug - Likeness Properties of GC – MS Separated Bioactive Compounds in Rare Medicinal Pleione Maculata Using Molecular Docking Technique and SwissADME in Silico Tools. Netw. Model. Anal. Heal. Informatics Bioinforma. 2021, 10, 1–36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  75. Nathiya, S.; Kumar, B.S.; Devi, K. Phytochemical Screening and GC-MS Analysis of Cardiospermum Halicacabum L. Leaf Extract. Int. J. Trend Sci. Res. Dev. 2018, 2, 512–516. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  76. Jahan, I.; Tona, M.R.; Sharmin, S.; Sayeed, M.A.; Tania, F.Z.; Paul, A.; Chy, N.U.; Rakib, A.; Emran, T. Bin; Simal-gandara, J. GC-MS Phytochemical Profiling, Pharmacological Properties, and In Silico Studies of Chukrasia Velutina Leaves: A Novel Source for Bioactive Agents. Molecules 2020, 25, 1–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  77. Mannaa, M.; Kim, K.D. Effect of Temperature and Relative Humidity on Growth of Aspergillus and Penicillium Spp. and Biocontrol Activity of Pseudomonas Protegens AS15 against Aflatoxigenic Aspergillus Flavus in Stored Rice Grains. Mycobiology 2018, 46, 287–295. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  78. Ahmad, S.; Ullah, F.; Sadiq, A.; Ayaz, M.; Imran, M.; Ali, I.; Zeb, A.; Ullah, F.; Shah, M.R. Chemical Composition, Antioxidant and Anticholinesterase Potentials of Essential Oil of Rumex Hastatus D. Don Collected from the North West of Pakistan. BMC Complement. Altern. Med. 2016, 16, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  79. Qin, K.; Zheng, L.; Cai, H.; Cao, G.; Lou, Y.; Lu, T.; Shu, Y.; Zhou, W.; Cai, B. Characterization of Chemical Composition of Pericarpium Citri Reticulatae Volatile Oil by Comprehensive Two-Dimensional Gas Chromatography with High-Resolution Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry. Evidence-Based Complement. Altern. Med. 2013, 2013, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  80. Anzano, A.; Ammar, M.; Papaianni, M.; Grauso, L.; Sabbah, M.; Capparelli, R.; Lanzotti, V. Moringa Oleifera Lam.: A Phytochemical and Pharmacological Overview. Horticulturae 2021, 7, 1–25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  81. Mohammed, G.J.; Omran, A.M.; Hussein, H.M. Antibacterial and Phytochemical Analysis of Piper Nigrum Using Gas Chromatography – Mass Spectrum and Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy. Int. J. Pharmacogn. Phytochem. Res. 2016, 8, 977–996. [Google Scholar]
  82. Pinho, E.; Henriques, M.; Soares, G. Cyclodextrin/Cellulose Hydrogel with Gallic Acid to Prevent Wound Infection. Cellulose 2014, 21, 4519–4530. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  83. Sri Saranya, M.S.; Arunprasath, A. Evaluation of Phytochemical Compounds in Corbichonia Decumbens (Frossk). Excell by Using Gas Chromatography – Mass Spectrometry. J. Appl. Adv. Res. 2019, 4, 89–93. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  84. Chen, P.; Peng, Y.; Chung, W.; Chung, K.; Huang, H.; Huang, J. Inhibition of Penicillium Digitatum and Citrus Green Mold by Volatile Compounds Produced by Enterobacter Cloacae Plant Pathology & Microbiology. J. Plant Pathol. Microbiol. 2016, 7, 1–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  85. Paranthaman, R.; Praveen, K.P.; Kumaravel, S. GC-MS Analysis of Phytochemicals and Simultaneous Determination of Flavonoids in Amaranthus Caudatus (Sirukeerai) by RP-HPLC. J. Anal. Bioanal. Tech. 2012, 03, 3–6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  86. Amaral, A.C.F.; Gomes, L.A.; Silva, J.R.D.A.; Ferreira, J.L.P.; Ramos, A.D.S.; Rosa, M.D.S.S.; Vermelho, A.B.; Rodrigues, I.A. Liposomal Formulation of Turmerone-Rich Hexane Fractions from Curcuma Longa Enhances Their Antileishmanial Activity. Biomed Res. Int. 2014, 2014, 1–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  87. Khin, P.P.; Lee, J.H.; Jun, H.S. Pancreatic Beta-Cell Dysfunction in Type 2 Diabetes. Eur. J. Inflamm. 2023, 21, 1–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  88. Hyde, K.D.; Xu, J.; Rapior, S.; Jeewon, R.; Lumyong, S. The Amazing Potential of Fungi : 50 Ways We Can Exploit Fungi Industrially. Fungal Divers. 2019, 97, 1–136. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  89. Gopal, J.; Sivanesan, I.; Muthu, M.; Oh, J.W. Scrutinizing the Nutritional Aspects of Asian Mushrooms, Its Commercialization and Scope for Value-Added Products. Nutrients 2022, 14, 1–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  90. Arunachalam, K.; Sreeja, P.S.; Yang, X. The Antioxidant Properties of Mushroom Polysaccharides Can Potentially Mitigate Oxidative Stress, Beta-Cell Dysfunction and Insulin Resistance. Front. Pharmacol. 2022, 13, 1–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  91. Jovanović, J.A.; Mihailović, M.; Uskoković, A.; Grdović, N.; Dinić, S.; Vidaković, M. The Effects of Major Mushroom Bioactive Compounds on Mechanisms That Control Blood Glucose Level. J. Fungi 2021, 7, 1–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  92. Huang, H.T.; Wang, S.L.; Nguyen, V.B.; Kuo, Y.H. Isolation and Identification of Potent Antidiabetic Compounds from Antrodia Cinnamomea — An Edible Taiwanese Mushroom. Molecules 2018, 23, 1–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  93. Xiao, C.; Jiao, C.; Xie, Y.; Ye, L.; Li, Q.; Wu, Q. Grifola Frondosa GF5000 Improves Insulin Resistance by Modulation the Composition of Gut Microbiota in Diabetic Rats. J. Funct. Foods 2021, 77, 104313. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  94. Konno, S. SX-Fraction: Promise for Novel Treatment of Type 2 Diabetes. World J. Diabetes 2020, 11, 572–583. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  95. Ma, X.; Yang, M.; He, Y.; Zhai, C.; Li, C. A Review on the Production, Structure, Bioactivities and Applications of Tremella Polysaccharides. Int. J. Immunopathol. Pharmacol. 2021, 35, 1–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  96. Sholola, M.T.; Adongbede, E.M.; Williams, L.L.; Adekunle, A.A. Antioxidant and Antibacterial Activities of Secondary Metabolites from Microporus Xanthopus (Fr.) Kuntze (Polypore) Collected from the Wild in Lagos, Nigeria. J. Appl. Sci. Environ. Manag. 2022, 26, 877–883. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  97. Gebreyohannes, G.; Nyerere, A.; Bii, C.; Berhe Sbhatu, D. Determination of Antimicrobial Activity of Extracts of Indigenous Wild Mushrooms against Pathogenic Organisms. Evidence-Based Complement. Altern. Med. 2019, 2019, 1–7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  98. Mendis, S.; Puska, P.; Norrving, B. Global Atlas on Cardiovascular Disease Prevention and Control; 2011; ISBN 978 92 4 156437 3.
  99. Rauf, A.; Joshi, P.B.; Ahmad, Z.; Hemeg, H.A.; Olatunde, A.; Naz, S.; Hafeez, N.; Simal-Gandara, J. Edible Mushrooms as Potential Functional Foods in Amelioration of Hypertension. Phyther. Res. 2023, 37, 2644–2660. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  100. Aline Mayrink, de M. Agaricus Brasiliensis (Sun Mushroom) and Its Therapeutic Potential: A Review. Arch. Food Nutr. Sci. 2022, 6, 6–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  101. Gora, A.H.; Rehman, S.; Kiron, V.; Dias, J.; Fernandes, J.M.O.; Olsvik, P.A.; Siriyappagouder, P.; Vatsos, I.; Schmid-Staiger, U.; Frick, K.; et al. Management of Hypercholesterolemia Through Dietary SS-Glucans–Insights From a Zebrafish Model. Front. Nutr. 2022, 8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  102. Kiyama, R. DNA Microarray-Based Screening and Characterization of Traditional Chinese Medicine. Microarrays 2017, 6, 1–26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  103. Kumari, S.; Kumari, S.; Attri, C.; Sharma, R.; Kulshreshtha, S.; Benali, T.; Bouyahya, A.; Gürer, E.S.; Sharifi-Rad, J. GC-MS Analysis, Antioxidant and Antifungal Studies of Different Extracts of Chaetomium Globosum Isolated from Urginea Indica. Biomed Res. Int. 2022, 2022, 1–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  104. Kingsley, D.; Abraham, J. In Vitro Analysis of Antimicrobial Compounds from Euphorbia Milli. Curr. Trends Biotechnol. Pharm. 2022, 16, 15–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  105. Shehata, M.G.; Badr, A.N.; El Sohaimy, S.A.; Asker, D.; Awad, T.S. Characterization of Antifungal Metabolites Produced by Novel Lactic Acid Bacterium and Their Potential Application as Food Biopreservatives. Ann. Agric. Sci. 2019, 64, 71–78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  106. Vuerich, M.; Petrussa, E.; Filippi, A.; Cluzet, S.; Fonayet, J.V.; Sepulcri, A.; Piani, B.; Braidot, E. Antifungal Activity of Chili Pepper Extract with Potential for the Control of Some Major Pathogens in Grapevine. Pest Manag. Sci. 2023, 1–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  107. Mehdi, M.A.H.; Thabet, A.Z.A.; Alarabi, F.Y.S.; Omar, G.M.N. Analysis of Bioactive Chemical Compounds of Leaves Extracts from Tamarindus Indica Using FT-IR and GC-MS Spectroscopy. Asian J. Res. Biochem. 2021, 8, 22–34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  108. Sivakumar, S.R. Antibacterial Potential of White Crystalline Solid from Red Algae Porteiria Hornemanii against the Plant Pathogenic Bacteria. African J. Agric. Reseearch 2014, 9, 1353–1357. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  109. Sciences, B.; Gheda, S.F.; Ismail, G.A. Natural Products from Some Soil Cyanobacterial Extracts with Potent Antimicrobial, Antioxidant and Cytotoxic Activities. An Acad Bras Cienc 2020, 92, 1–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  110. Mallikadevi, T.; Paulsamy, S.; Jamuna, S.; Karthika, K. Analysis for Phytoceuticals and Bioinformatics Approach for the Evaluation of Therapetic Properties of Whole Plant Methanolic Extract of Mukia Maderaspatana (L.) M.Roem. (Cucurbitaceae) - A Traditional Medicinal Plant in Western Districts of Tamil Nadu, I. Asian J. Pharm. Clin. Res. 2012, 5, 163–168. [Google Scholar]
  111. Priya, V.; Jananie, R.K.; Vijayalakshmi, K. GC/MS Determination of Bioactive Components of Trigonella Foenum Grecum. J. Chem. Pharm. Res. 2011, 3, 35–40. [Google Scholar]
  112. Schrag, A.; Carroll, C.; Duncan, G.; Molloy, S.; Grover, L.; Hunter, R.; Brown, R.; Freemantle, N.; Whipps, J. Antidepressants Trial in Parkinson ’ s Disease ( ADepT - PD ): Protocol for a Randomised Placebo - Controlled Trial on the Effectiveness of Escitalopram and Nortriptyline on Depressive Symptoms in Parkinson ’ s Disease. BMC Neurol. 2022, 22, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  113. Kumar, M.; Kumar, V.; Singh, V.; Thakral, S. Synthesis, in Silico Studies and Biological Screening of (E)-2-(3-(Substitutedstyryl)-5-(Substitutedphenyl)-4,5-Dihydropyrazol-1-Yl)Benzo[d]Thiazole Derivatives as an Anti-Oxidant, Anti-Inflammatory and Antimicrobial Agents. BMC Chem. 2022, 16, 1–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  114. Gheda, S.F.; Abo-Shady, A.M.; Abdel-Karim, O.H.; Ismail, G.A. Antioxidant and Antihyperglycemic Activity of Arthrospira Platensis (Spirulina Platensis) Methanolic Extract: In Vitro and in Vivo Study. Egypt. J. Bot. 2021, 61, 71–93. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  115. F Bobade, A. GC-MS Analysis of Bioactive Compound in Ethanolic Extract of Pithecellobium Dulce Leaves. Acta Sci. Pharm. Sci. 2019, 3, 08–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  116. Agoramoorthy, G.; Chandrasekaran, M.; Venkatesalu, V.; Hsu, M.J. Antibacterial and Antifungal Activities of Fatty Acid Methyl Esters of the Blind-Your-Eye Mangrove from India. Brazilian J. Microbiol. 2007, 38, 739–742. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  117. Shameem, S.A.; Ganai, B.A.; Rather, M.S.; Khan, K.Z. Chemical Composition and Antioxidant Activity of Viscum Album L. Growing on Juglans Regia Host Tree in Kashmir, India. Int. J. Adv. Res. Sci. Eng. 2017, 6, 921–927. [Google Scholar]
  118. Blondeau, N.; Lipsky, R.H.; Bourourou, M.; Duncan, M.W.; Gorelick, P.B.; Marini, A.M. Alpha-Linolenic Acid: An Omega-3 Fatty Acid with Neuroprotective Properties - Ready for Use in the Stroke Clinic? Biomed Res. Int. 2015, 2015, 1–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  119. Chelliah, R.; Ramakrishnan, S.; Antony, U. Nutritional Quality of Moringa Oleifera for Its Bioactivity and Antibacterial Properties. Int. Food Res. J. 2017, 24, 825–833. [Google Scholar]
  120. Murru, E.; Manca, C.; Carta, G.; Banni, S. Impact of Dietary Palmitic Acid on Lipid Metabolism. Front. Nutr. 2022, 9, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  121. Sanguanphun, T.; Promtang, S.; Sornkaew, N.; Niamnont, N.; Sobhon, P. Anti-Parkinson Effects of Holothuria Leucospilota -Derived Palmitic Acid in Caenorhabditis Elegans Model of Parkinson’s Disease. Mar. Drugs 2023, 21, 1–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  122. Vesga-jiménez, D.J.; Martin, C.; Barreto, G.E.; Aristizábal-pachón, A.F.; Pinzón, A.; González, J. Fatty Acids: An Insight into the Pathogenesis of Neurodegenerative Diseases and Therapeutic Potential. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23, 1–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  123. Larayetan, R.; Ololade, Z.S.; Ogunmola, O.O.; Ladokun, A. Phytochemical Constituents, Antioxidant, Cytotoxicity, Antimicrobial, Antitrypanosomal, and Antimalarial Potentials of the Crude Extracts of Callistemon Citrinus. Evidence-based Complement. Altern. Med. 2019, 2019, 1–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  124. Ahmed, A.F.; Mahmoud, G.A.E.; Hefzy, M.; Liu, Z.; Ma, C. Overview on the Edible Mushrooms in Egypt. J. Futur. Foods 2023, 3, 8–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  125. Mustafa, F.; Chopra, H.; Baig, A.A.; Avula, S.K.; Kumari, S.; Mohanta, T.K.; Saravanan, M.; Mishra, A.K.; Sharma, N.; Mohanta, Y.K. Edible Mushrooms as Novel Myco-Therapeutics: Effects on Lipid Level, Obesity, and BMI. J. Fungi 2022, 8, 1–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  126. Lee, D.H.; Yang, M.; Giovannucci, E.L.; Sun, Q.; Chavarro, J.E. Mushroom Consumption, Biomarkers, and Risk of Cardiovascular Disease and Type 2 Diabetes: A Prospective Cohort Study of US Women and Men. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2019, 110, 666–674. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  127. Das, A.K.; Asif, M.; Hasan, G.M.M.A. A Comparative Study of Fatty Acid Compositions of Three Cultivated Edible Mushroom Species of Bangladesh. J. Agric. Food Res. 2023, 12, 100620. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  128. Eilam, Y.; Pintel, N.; Khattib, H.; Shagug, N.; Taha, R.; Avni, D. Regulation of Cholesterol Metabolism by Phytochemicals Derived from Algae and Edible Mushrooms in Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23, 1–30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  129. Nhi, N.T.N.; Khang, D.T.; Dung, T.N. Termitomyces Mushroom Extracts and Its Biological Activities. Food Sci. Technol. 2022, 42, 1–7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  130. Sitati, C.N.W.; Ogila, K.O.; Waihenya, R.W.; Ochola, L.A. Phytochemical Profile and Antimicrobial Activities of Edible Mushroom Termitomyces Striatus. Evidence-based Complement. Altern. Med. 2021, 2021, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  131. Meneses, M.E.; Martínez-Carrera, D.; Torres, N.; Sánchez-Tapia, M.; Aguilar-López, M.; Morales, P.; Sobal, M.; Bernabé, T.; Escudero, H.; Granados-Portillo, O.; et al. Hypocholesterolemic Properties and Prebiotic Effects of Mexican Ganoderma Lucidum in C57BL/6 Mice. PLoS One 2016, 11, 1–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  132. Rathee, S.; Rathee, D.; Rathee, D.; Kumar, V.; Rathee, P. Mushrooms as Therapeutic Agents. Rev. Bras. Farmacogn. 2012, 22, 459–474. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  133. Nabubuya, A.; Muyonga, J.; Kabasa, J. Nutritional and Hypocholesterolemic Properties of Termitomyces Microcarpus Mushrooms. African J. Food, Agric. Nutr. Dev. 2010, 10, 2235–2257. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  134. Yahaya, N.F.M.; Aminudin, N.; Abdullah, N. Pleurotus Pulmonarius (Fr.) Quel Crude Aqueous Extract Ameliorates Wistar-Kyoto Rat Thoracic Aortic Tissues and Vasodilation Responses. Sains Malaysiana 2022, 51, 187–198. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  135. Ali, H.A.M.; Imad, H.H.; Salah, A.I. Analysis of Bioactive Chemical Components of Two Medicinal Plants (Coriandrum Sativum and Melia Azedarach) Leaves Using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS). African J. Biotechnol. 2015, 14, 2812–2830. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  136. Koudehi, M.F.; Ardalan, A.A.; Zibaseresht, R. Chemical Constituents of an Iranian Grown Capsicum Annuum and Their Cytotoxic Activities Evaluation. Org. Med. Chem IJ 2020, 9, 112–118. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  137. Oni, J.O.; Akomaye, F.A.; Markson, A.A.; Egwu, A.C. GC-MS Analysis of Bioactive Compounds in Some Wild-Edible Mushrooms from Calabar, Southern Nigeria. Eur. J. Biol. Biotechnol. 2020, 1, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  138. Chen, G.; Sui, Y.; Chen, S. Detection of Flavor Compounds in Longissimus Muscle from Four Hybrid Pig Breeds of Sus Scrofa, Bamei Pig, and Large White. Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 2014, 78, 1910–1916. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  139. Dineshkumar, G.; Rajakumar, R. GC-MS EVALUATION OF BIOACTIVE MOLECULES FROM THE METHANOLIC LEAF EXTRACT OF AZADIRACHTA INDICA ( A. JUSS ). Asian J. Pharm. Sci. Technol. www.ajpst.com 2015, 5, 64–69. [Google Scholar]
  140. Ahire, J.J.; Dicks, L.M.T. nhibit Biofilm Formation by Pseudomonas Aeruginosa. 2014, 58, 2098–2104. [CrossRef]
  141. Stastny, J.; Marsik, P.; Tauchen, J.; Bozik, M.; Mascellani, A.; Havlik, J.; Landa, P.; Jablonsky, I.; Treml, J.; Herczogova, P.; et al. Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Five Medicinal Mushrooms of the Genus Pleurotus. Antioxidants 2022, 11, 1–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  142. Agustika, D.K.; Mercuriani, I.S.; Ariyanti, N.A.; Purnomo, C.W.; Triyana, K.; Iliescu, D.D.; Leeson, M.S. Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry Analysis of Compounds Emitted by Pepper Yellow Leaf Curl Virus-Infected Chili Plants: A Preliminary Study. Separations 2021, 8, 1–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  143. Ingole, S.N. Phytochemical Analysis of Leaf Extract of Ocimum Americanum L. ( Lamiaceae ) by GCMS Method. World Sci. News 2016, 37, 76–87. [Google Scholar]
  144. Belinda, N.S.; Swaleh, S.; Mwonjoria, K.J.; Wilson, M.N. Antioxidant Activity, Total Phenolic and Flavonoid Content of Selected Kenyan Medicinal Plants, Sea Algae and Medicinal Wild Mushrooms. African J. Pure Appl. Chem. 2019, 13, 43–48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  145. Sarker, U.; Oba, S. Phenolic Profiles and Antioxidant Activities in Selected Drought-Tolerant Leafy Vegetable Amaranth. Sci. Rep. 2020, 10, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  146. Nardini, M.; Garaguso, I. Characterization of Bioactive Compounds and Antioxidant Activity of Fruit Beers. Food Chem. 2020, 305, 125437. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  147. Gebreyohannes, G.; Nyerere, A.; Bii, C.; Sbhatu, D.B. Challenges of Intervention, Treatment, and Antibiotic Resistance of Biofilm-Forming Microorganisms. Heliyon 2019, 5, 1–7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  148. de Carvalho, M.P.; Gulotta, G.; do Amaral, M.W.; Lünsdorf, H.; Sasse, F.; Abraham, W.R. Coprinuslactone Protects the Edible Mushroom Coprinus Comatus against Biofilm Infections by Blocking Both Quorum-Sensing and MurA. Environ. Microbiol. 2016, 18, 4254–4264. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  149. Hawas, S.; Verderosa, A.D.; Totsika, M. Combination Therapies for Biofilm Inhibition and Eradication: A Comparative Review of Laboratory and Preclinical Studies. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol. 2022, 12, 1–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  150. Panda, S.K.; Sahoo, G.; Swain, S.S.; Luyten, W. Anticancer Activities of Mushrooms: A Neglected Source for Drug Discovery. Pharmaceuticals 2022, 15, 1–25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  151. Esheli, M.; Thissera, B.; El-Seedi, H.R.; Rateb, M.E. Fungal Metabolites in Human Health and Diseases—An Overview. Encyclopedia 2022, 2, 1590–1601. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  152. Khazir, J.; Riley, D.L.; Pilcher, L.A.; De-Maayer, P.; Mir, B.A. Anticancer Agents from Diverse Natural Sources. Nat. Prod. Commun. 2014, 9, 1655–1669. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  153. Maher, J.; Davies, D.M. CAR-Based Immunotherapy of Solid Tumours—A Survey of the Emerging Targets. Cancers (Basel). 2023, 15, 1–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  154. Cruz-Arévalo, J.; Sánchez, J.E.; González-Cortázar, M.; Zamilpa, A.; Andrade-Gallegos, R.H.; Mendoza-De-Gives, P.; Aguilar-Marcelino, L. Chemical Composition of an Anthelmintic Fraction of Pleurotus Eryngii against Eggs and Infective Larvae (L3) of Haemonchus Contortus. Biomed Res. Int. 2020, 2020, 1–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  155. Kuo, T.H.; Yang, C.T.; Chang, H.Y.; Hsueh, Y.P.; Hsu, C.C. Nematode-Trapping Fungi Produce Diverse Metabolites during Predator–Prey Interaction. Metabolites 2020, 10, 1–24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  156. Panda, S.K.; Das, R.; Mai, A.H.; De Borggraeve, W.M.; Luyten, W. Nematicidal Activity of Holigarna Caustica (Dennst.) Oken Fruit Is Due to Linoleic Acid. Biomolecules 2020, 10, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  157. Chepkirui, C.; Cheng, T.; Matasyoh, J.; Decock, C.; Stadler, M. An Unprecedented Spiro [Furan-2,1’-Indene]-3-One Derivative and Other Nematicidal and Antimicrobial Metabolites from Sanghuangporus Sp. (Hymenochaetaceae, Basidiomycota) Collected in Kenya. Phytochem. Lett. 2018, 25, 141–146. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  158. Ashrafi, S.; Helaly, S.; Schroers, H.J.; Stadler, M.; Richert-Poeggeler, K.R.; Dababat, A.A.; Maier, W. Ijuhya Vitellina Sp. Nov., a Novel Source for Chaetoglobosin A, Is a Destructive Parasite of the Cereal Cyst Nematode Heterodera Filipjevi; 2017; Vol. 12; ISBN 1111111111.
  159. Inoue, T.; Shingaki, R.; Fukui, K. Inhibition of Swarming Motility of Pseudomonas Aeruginosa by Branched-Chain Fatty Acids. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 2008, 281, 81–86. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  160. Zahra, G.; Khadijeh, B.; Hossein, D. Essential Oil Composition of Two Scutellaria Species from Iran. J. Tradit. Chinese Med. Sci. 2019, 6, 244–253. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  161. Usha, T.; Middha, S.K.; Shanmugarajan, D.; Babu, D.; Goyal, A.K.; Yusufoglu, H.S.; Sidhalinghamurthy, K.R. Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry Metabolic Profiling, Molecular Simulation and Dynamics of Diverse Phytochemicals of Punica Granatum L. Leaves against Estrogen Receptor. Front. Biosci. 2021, 26, 423–441. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  162. He, Z.; Lin, J.; He, Y.; Liu, S. Polysaccharide-Peptide from Trametes Versicolor: The Potential Medicine for Colorectal Cancer Treatment. Biomedicines 2022, 10, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  163. Luo, K.W.; Yue, G.G.L.; Ko, C.H.; Lee, J.K.M.; Gao, S.; Li, L.F.; Li, G.; Fung, K.P.; Leung, P.C.; Lau, C.B.S. In Vivo and in Vitro Anti-Tumor and Anti-Metastasis Effects of Coriolus Versicolor Aqueous Extract on Mouse Mammary 4T1 Carcinoma. Phytomedicine 2014, 21, 1078–1087. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  164. Kothari, D.; Patel, S.; Kim, S.K. Anticancer and Other Therapeutic Relevance of Mushroom Polysaccharides: A Holistic Appraisal. Biomed. Pharmacother. 2018, 105, 377–394. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  165. Tyagi, T.; Agarwal, M. Phytochemical Screening and GC-MS Analysis of Bioactive Constituents in the Ethanolic Extract of Pistia Stratiotes L. and Eichhornia Crassipes ( Mart.) Solms. J. Pharmacogn. Phytochem. 2017, 6, 195–206. [Google Scholar]
  166. Krishnaveni, M.; Dhanalakshmi, R.; Nandhini, N. GC-MS Analysis of Phytochemicals, Fatty Acid Profile, Antimicrobial Activity of Gossypium Seeds. Int. J. Pharm. Sci. Rev. Res. 2014, 27, 273–276. [Google Scholar]
  167. Shirvani, A.; Jafari, M.; Goli, S.A.H.; Soltani Tehrani, N.; Rahimmalek, M. The Changes in Proximate Composition, Antioxidant Activity and Fatty Acid Profile of Germinating Safflower (Carthamus Tinctorius) Seed. J. Agric. Sci. Technol. 2016, 18, 1967–1974. [Google Scholar]
  168. Kalogeropoulos, N.; Yanni, A.E.; Koutrotsios, G.; Aloupi, M. Bioactive Microconstituents and Antioxidant Properties of Wild Edible Mushrooms from the Island of Lesvos, Greece. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2013, 55, 378–385. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  169. Malash, M.A.; El-Naggar, M.M.A.; Ibrahim, M.S. Antimicrobial Activities of a Novel Marine Streptomyces Sp. MMM2 Isolated from El-Arish Coast, Egypt. Egypt. J. Aquat. Biol. Fish. 2022, 26, 1317–1339. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  170. Nyalo, P.; Omwenga, G.; Ngugi, M. Quantitative Phytochemical Profile and In Vitro Antioxidant Properties of Ethyl Acetate Extracts of Xerophyta Spekei (Baker) and Grewia Tembensis (Fresen). J. evidence-based Integr. Med. 2023, 28, 1–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  171. Joshi, T.; Pandey, S.C.; Maiti, P.; Tripathi, M.; Paliwal, A.; Nand, M.; Sharma, P.; Samant, M.; Pande, V.; Chandra, S. Antimicrobial Activity of Methanolic Extracts of Vernonia Cinerea against Xanthomonas Oryzae and Identification of Their Compounds Using in Silico Techniques. PLoS One 2021, 16, 1–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  172. Adamczak, A.; Ożarowski, M.; Karpiński, T.M. Antibacterial Activity of Some Flavonoids and Organic Acids Widely Distributed in Plants. J. Clin. Med. 2020, 9, 1–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  173. Mcdonald, J. Morphological and Molecular Systematics of Resupinatus (Basidiomycota), 2015.
  174. Phukhamsakda, C.; Nilsson, R.H.; Bhunjun, C.S.; de Farias, A.R.G.; Sun, Y.R.; Wijesinghe, S.N.; Raza, M.; Bao, D.F.; Lu, L.; Tibpromma, S.; et al. The Numbers of Fungi: Contributions from Traditional Taxonomic Studies and Challenges of Metabarcoding. Fungal Divers. 2022, 114, 327–386. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  175. Siwulski, M.; Rzymski, P.; Budka, A. Screening the Multi-Element Content of Pleurotus Mushroom Species Using Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometer ( ICP-OES ). Food Anal. Methods 2017, 10, 487–496. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  176. Mleczek, M.; Niedzielski, P.; Kalač, P.; Budka, A.; Siwulski, M.; Gąsecka, M.; Rzymski, P.; Magdziak, Z.; Sobieralski, K. Multielemental Analysis of 20 Mushroom Species Growing near a Heavily Trafficked Road in Poland. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2016, 23, 16280–16295. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  177. Gardes, M.; Bruns, T. ITS Primers with Enhanced Specificity for Basidiomycetes - Application to the Identification of Mycorrhizae and Rusts. Mol. Ecol. 1993, 2, 113–118. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  178. Kalaw, S.; Albinto, R. Functional Activities of Philippine Wild Strain of Coprinus Comatus (O.F.Müll.: Fr.) Pers and Pleurotus Cystidiosus O. K. Miller Grown on Rice Straw Based Substrate Formulation. Mycosphere 2014, 5, 646–655. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  179. Wandati, T.W.; Kenji, G.M.; Onguso, J.M. Phytochemicals in Edible Wild Mushrooms From Selected Areas in Kenya. J. Food Res. 2013, 2, 137–144. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  180. Zhu, H.; Wang, S.X.; Zhang, S.S.; Cao, C.X. Inhibiting Effect of Bioactive Metabolites Produced by Mushroom Cultivation on Bacterial Quorum Sensing-Regulated Behaviors. Chemotherapy 2011, 57, 292–297. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  181. Hu, Z.; Wei, L.; Xian, W.S.; Zhen, T.B.; Shuai, Z.S. Evaluation of Anti-Quorum-Sensing Activity of Fermentation Metabolites from Different Strains of a Medicinal Mushroom, Phellinus Igniarius. Chemotherapy 2012, 58, 195–199. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  182. Priya, V.; Jananie, R.; Vijayalakshmi, K. GC-Ms Determination of Bioactive Components of Pleurotus Ostreatus. Int. Res. J. Pharm. 2012, 3, 150–151. [Google Scholar]
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.
Copyright: This open access article is published under a Creative Commons CC BY 4.0 license, which permit the free download, distribution, and reuse, provided that the author and preprint are cited in any reuse.

Downloads

275

Views

126

Comments

0

Subscription

Notify me about updates to this article or when a peer-reviewed version is published.

Email

Prerpints.org logo

Preprints.org is a free preprint server supported by MDPI in Basel, Switzerland.

facebook logotwitter logolinkedin logo
MDPI Initiatives
Important Links
Subscribe

Disclaimer

Terms of Use

Privacy Policy

© 2025 MDPI (Basel, Switzerland) unless otherwise stated