Prerpints.org logo
Preprint
Review

A Review on Agricultural Wastes and Pineapple Leaf Fibers in UAVs Airframe Manufacturing

Altmetrics

Downloads

600

Views

196

Comments

0

Submitted:

25 July 2023

Posted:

26 July 2023

You are already at the latest version

Alerts
Abstract
In the past few decades, the use of agricultural waste has been increasing due to the increasing demand for sustainable materials. This paper aims to review the significance of agricultural waste as a type of wealth and its potential as an alternative material in the composite field. It was found that many agricultural wastes had been utilized in various production of ecological products. The review discusses the physical, mechanical, and chemical properties of the natural fibers made from agricultural waste and the use of Pineapple Leaf Fiber Reinforced Composite to manufacture UAVs (Unmanned Aerial Vehicles). The extracted waste fibers’ physical, mechanical, and chemical properties show that these agricultural wastes can produce better advanced composite materials suitable for structural applications. The use of pineapple leaf fiber in Unmanned Aerial Vehicles manufacturing has the potential to revolutionize this industry and contribute to a more sustainable future.
Keywords: 
Subject: Engineering  -   Aerospace Engineering

1. Introduction

The growth of the agricultural sector highly affects human development and economic development. Due to the ever-increasing human population, awareness of increasing agricultural production has been growing. However, the growth of agricultural production comes with the increment of farming activities, which produce large amounts of agricultural waste.
One of the major problems with having an abundant supply of agricultural waste is the disposal method. Due to the massive amount of waste generated, it is not easy for farm owners to dispose of the accumulated waste. Moreover, these wastes are usually improperly managed in developing countries because little information is available on their potential and benefit as raw material if appropriately managed. Improper handling of agricultural wastes will lead to economic loss and threaten human health due to environmental and air pollution [1].
The current disposal method used by the farm owners is through burning. This method could quickly dispose of the waste without spending a large amount of expenses. However, the effect of this method is severely detrimental to the environment and society. One of the side effects due to open burning is air pollution. The burning of agricultural wastes will increase the emission of green gases, which contributes to global warming, increasing the particulate matter and smog that are detrimental to human health, as well as the deterioration of soil fertility. In addition, the contaminated soil that contains the smoke and dust residue may be channeled to the nearby water source, thus polluting the aquatic environment.
Another common method of disposal is by dumping. Although this method requires little labor and expenses, it increases the landfill area. Furthermore, indiscriminate dumping of agricultural wastes on the farm site will attract a lot of predators and pests, which could compromise the workers’ safety. The accumulation of agricultural wastes in the farms could provide ideal conditions for rodents and pests’ breeding grounds and adequate hiding spaces for snakes. Rodents are known to be a carrier for various diseases and crop destroyers. Meanwhile, snakes like to prey on workers or farm animals.
Although having a balanced population of these creatures is incredibly beneficial on farms, an unhealthy population could also threaten workers’ safety. Another effect of indiscriminate dumping is flooding. Flooding occurs due to blocked waterways caused by solid agricultural wastes. Due to this, many lives and properties were lost during a high flood. Dumping at the landfill site is also another option for agricultural waste disposal. However, unlike indiscriminate dumping, this type is quite expensive due to the need for labor and transportation. This kind of dumping also requires a licensed pickup service, and each landfill needs to be checked earlier to ensure that the agricultural wastes match the landfill requirements.
Burying agricultural waste is also one of many common disposal methods. It is one of the easiest disposal methods depending on the soil condition. However, the problem with this method is that it is labor and energy intensive. Thus it is much more expensive compared to the dumping and burning method. Furthermore, burying a massive amount of animal waste could negatively impact the soil and water quality near the burial site. Table 1 shows some of the disposal methods used for agricultural wastes.
Based on the Table 1, it can be concluded that the current disposal method significantly impacted the health of society and the environment. Thus, current researchers have studied various ways to change the existing forms of disposal that would lessen the negative impact on the economy, society, and environment. One such method is recycling agricultural waste and converting it into an alternative income for the locals [7,8]. Therefore, an alternative income generation could be established instead of losing money due to improper means of waste management. This will also keep the environment and society safer. Hence, this paper aims to review the significance of agricultural waste as a type of wealth and its potential as an alternative material in the composite field.

2. Converting agricultural waste to wealth

In recent years, many researchers have explored the possibility of recycling agricultural waste instead of using the traditional disposal method. This effort is more prevalent in developing countries since it offers an alternative source of income for the population living below the poverty line [9]. Another reason is that there is still no organized waste management in third-world countries, contributing to uncontrolled waste in landfills [10]. Currently, three types of agricultural wastes identified could be utilized and converted into an alternative income generation, as shown in Figure 1. Thus, this section discusses the possibility of using agricultural wastes in different types of applications based on the type of agricultural waste.

2.1. Crop waste

Crop wastes from plants consist of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. Due to the advances in the manufacturing field, current technologies can extract these components into their pure structural form. Figure 2 shows the basic structure of plant fiber.
Cellulose is mainly used to produce textiles [11], papers [12], and pharmaceuticals [13]. Cellulose is mainly used in these industries due to the presence of fibrils, which are small thread-like structures that could be exposed by beating or refining to provide a large area for bonding. Therefore, cellulose fiber could develop physical and chemical bonding with other fibers when its condition changes from wet to dry. Biofuel is also one of the applications made from cellulose or lipids to replace gasoline and diesel, respectively. Many modern vehicles are designed to operate on biofuels developed from plants.
As for hemicellulose, it provides support and strength to the cellulose structure [14]. The unique characteristics of cellulose fibers are high tensile strength, flexible, water-insoluble, and chemically stable. Hemi-cellulose is also commonly used to ferment alcohol that can be applied in cosmetics, coatings, and pharmaceuticals [15]. Hemicellulose is biodegradable, non-toxic, and has a lower molecular weight than cellulose.
Lignin’s characteristics are similar to cellulose and hemicellulose, with good biocompatibility and low toxicity. However, lignin is unique because it has high carbon content [16]. Therefore, lignin can be transformed into a composite or carbon material by extracting the carbon in this construction. The materials made from lignin are not only cost-efficient, but it is also environmentally friendly. In the most recent studies, lignin is used to produce epoxy resin suitable for printed board circuits in the electrochemical industry [17], wound dressing in the medical industry [18], 3D printing lignin-polymer composite materials in the manufacturing industry [19], and much more.
Besides its structural form, crop wastes can be used in fiber form, which is widely used in the composites field as a reinforcement material. In composites, fibers are found in two primary forms: short and long. Some of the products that were made by using the powdered or short-fibered form are briquettes made from charred coconut husks and shells [20], bio-packaging made from bagasse [21], and biogas from rotting vegetables [22]. Meanwhile, for long fibers, there are products such as clothing or textiles made from corn husks [23], sanitary pads made from banana stems [24], and plastics made from avocado pits [25].

2.2. Animal waste

Generally, animal waste means any substances emitted by animals in solid or liquid states. Some examples of animal solid wastes are feces, animal bedding, animal carcasses, and many others. Liquid wastes include urine, blood, and wastewater. Reusing animal waste is not new in agricultural management and is usually pre-treated before application. The most common ways solid waste was applied is as fertilizer and animal feeds [26]. Another method is converting them into energy [27] and biogas [28]. However, with the current technology, more applications are being proposed to utilize animal wastes in product manufacturing, especially in the form of fibers. One such example was using poultry feathers, hair, fur, and much more by extracting fibers from these materials [29]. These fibers are valuable as reinforcement material in composites or fabrics in textiles.
Cashmere fiber is a fine, soft hair collected while dehairing goats [30]. The fibers were obtained from goat hairs during its combing process during the spring season when the goats naturally shed their winter coat. It is composed of keratin, a protein with high sulfur content, which gives cashmere its softness and warmth. The cashmere is eight times warmer than ordinary wool. The fine texture of the fibers makes them softer than wool.
Chicken feathers are a waste product obtained when birds are molted during the molting season or after the chicken has been processed into meat [29]. The most interesting property of feathers that attracted much attention is their extremely low density and hydrophobic nature. Due to its hydrophobic nature, feather composites have high resistance to decay fungi and termites. This fiber also has high tensile strength, compressive strength, and impact resistance, with thermal and sound insulation properties, which are highly suitable for structural materials.

2.3. Processing waste

Processing waste can be defined as the end products obtained from various processing industries, which were discarded and not utilized. These wastes could be turned into valuable products if the proposed utilization could generate revenues exceeding its cost for reprocessing. Processing waste is the main reason for the high accumulation of landfills and environmental pollution [31]. There are mainly two types of processing waste based on their properties, which are biodegradable and non-biodegradable. Biodegradable processing waste comprises rotting fruits and vegetables, papers, and wool waste, while non-biodegradable processing waste comprises plastics, bottles, cans, and much more.
In the lac processing industry, lac, the resinous secretion of the lac insect (Kerria lacca), was used to produce several types of products such as lac dye, lac mud, and gummy mass. The sticklac was converted into a seedlac with the lac resin (shellac) and the water-soluble lac dye [32]. The dye has a deep red color suitable for use as a coloring material, and due to its non-toxicity, it is also used as a food colorant [33]. As for the lac mud, it was produced from the primary processing of lac. Lac mud is usually discarded due to the lack of a proper disposal method. Currently, in India, lac mud is used as an organic manure for vegetable production [34]. It was reported that there was an increased yield rate for vegetable production. This shows that lac mud could improve soil fertility and help sustain the lac production system. The gummy mass produced in the lac industry is the by-product waste obtained from Aleuritic acid production [35]. It is a sticky material that will not dry at ambient temperature. Therefore, this material was proposed as a coating material, gasket cement compound, and composite board.
Processing wastes could also be found significantly within the canned fruit processing industry. The pineapple processing factories produced many by-products from processing canned pineapple fruits. The factories usually discard around 80% of pineapple parts, including the fruit core, crown, peels, leaves, stems, and wastewater from washing fruit and juice production [36]. Most pineapple parts were pulverized into smaller bits for animal feeds, whereas the wastewater was processed into alcohol and sold to the pharmaceutical company to produce medicinal products.
Wool waste fibers are a by-product that comes from different steps in wool processing, which is unsuitable for textile use [37]. However, due to its unique properties, it is being applied in different applications. The chemical properties of wool waste fibers include a high nitrogen content, which makes them useful as a fertilizer. It is also composed of keratin, a protein with high sulfur content, which makes wool naturally flame resistant and resilient to stretching and compression. The mechanical properties of wool waste fibers include high elasticity and good resistance to compression. Meanwhile, the physical properties of wool waste fibers include a fine texture and a natural crimp, with a soft and fluffy feel that makes them helpful to act as thermal and sound insulators or as pillow stuffing.
Like wool, silk waste fibers refer to short silk fibers obtained during silk processing, which cannot be reeled due to technological constraints [38]. Due to its high protein content, silk waste fiber is usually processed into animal feeds. The silk waste fibers can be incorporated into composites to fabricate a high strain to failure composites with good deformability and resist impact. Silk waste fiber also contains amino acid structures most similar to human skin and has an antibacterial function. These features are a unique characteristic of silk waste fibers that are highly beneficial in cosmetic applications.

3. Agricultural waste as fiber polymer-reinforced material

In recent years, the effort exerted by researchers to develop greener products has significantly increased. Ecological awareness has started to sprout and is a significant factor driving more sustainable and environmentally friendly research. One of the most significant growth and application is within the composites field as reinforced material. Due to the rapid growth of manufacturing technology, extracting fibers from agricultural waste and developing green products is now possible. These agricultural waste fibers have a range of chemical, mechanical, and physical properties that make them useful for various applications, such as clothing, textiles, composites, and packaging. This section will discuss the physical, mechanical, and chemical properties of agricultural waste in its fiber form.

3.1. Physical and mechanical properties of fibers

Fiber reinforcement materials are generally used to add rigidity and restrain the propagation of cracks within composites. These fibers enforce the mechanical strength of the matrix while retaining or reducing the weight of the composites. Plant fibers from crop waste can be extracted in various ways, such as retting, scraping, decortication, or steam explosion after harvest season. Meanwhile, animal fibers are collected by shearing during the shedding season. As for processing waste fibers, it is collected from discarded materials due to plant or animal processing. The physical and mechanical properties of fibers extracted from agricultural waste are summarized in Table 2.
Table 2 shows that the mechanical strength of animal fibers and processing waste fibers are much lower compared to plant fibers. As for the fiber densities, plant-based fibers are much lower compared to animal-based fibers. Therefore, it can be concluded that plant fibers have a higher specific strength, which is highly significant in structural applications. This shows that plant fibers work better in composites than animal fibers and processing waste fibers. Therefore, to understand better how the fibers could affect the mechanical properties of the composites, knowing the fibers’ chemical composition is essential, which will be further discussed in Section 3.2.

3.2. Chemical properties of fibers

The chemical properties of fibers will differ from one fiber to another. The chemical composition of the fibers will help determine the suitability of the fibers for their chosen application.
In structural applications, the amount of cellulose and hemicellulose in plant fibers and protein in animal fibers will determine the strength and stiffness of the fibers as a reinforcement material [73]. Fibers with more cellulose/hemicellulose or keratin will help reinforce and strengthen composites.
As for lignin in plant fibers, it provides rigidity to the fiber, further strengthening its tensile strength. In addition, lignin is also hydrophobic. This specific characteristic provides the water resistivity of composites. Therefore, a higher amount of lignin will have better water resistance. Thus, it can be used as a resin to produce printed board circuits or as a replacement for polymer films. Furthermore, lignin has high carbon content, which could be used to make carbon fibers.
Similar to lignin, pectin increases the mechanical properties of the composites. Due to its unique characteristic as an adhesive in plant cell walls, it is highly suitable for gel making or coating. In addition, pectin is well known for its biocompatibility and anti-microbial characteristics. Thus, it is highly applied in food, biomedicine, and drugs. Table 3 shows the chemical composition of agricultural waste fibers.
From Table 3, it can be seen that the difference between plant fibers and animal fibers is their main composition, where plant fibers are mainly made up of cellulose, whereas animal fibers are mainly made up of protein. Meanwhile, processing waste fibers are discarded products processed from their primary source or have fully served their purpose as packaging or fabrics.
Due to the increasing animal welfare awareness, current research is mainly directed toward plant fibers. Although there are several innovative ways to collect animal fibers that could avoid killing them (such as peace silk), the process requires complicated procedures that end up making the materials more expensive. Similar to animal fibers, innovations in converting processing waste into recycled fibers were also researched and proposed. However, the additional procedure to convert them into useful fibers also requires higher production costs. However, unlike animal fibers and recycled fibers, the extraction of plant fibers is much cheaper. The raw materials can be transformed directly into valuable fibers without undergoing complicated extraction procedures. Therefore, there is an increasing trend for the innovation of animal fibers using plant fibers such as wool (made from a blend of cotton and calotropis) and silk (made from lotus, agave, or aloe vera).
Plant fibers are renewable, cruelty-free, and have a lower carbon footprint. Therefore, it is much preferable, especially among vegan enthusiasts. Some plant fibers are derived from stems and leaves of a plant or tree that was harder to extract in high amount due to the absence of proper equipment. However, with the current technology, the extraction of these fibers has become possible. One such example is the pineapple leaf fibers.

4. Reinforced Pineapple Leaf Fiber in UAV Construction

Pineapple plantations can be found worldwide, and the three top producers are the Philippines, Costa Rica, and Brazil. However, a high amount of production will also result in a high amount of agricultural waste. In Malaysia especially, due to the lack of proper equipment, the pineapple leaf waste will usually end up being dumped or buried underground at the plantation site to degrade naturally. Figure 3 below shows the accumulation of pineapple leaf waste. Over time, this will compromise the workers’ safety at the plantation site. Thus, instead of discarding these leaves, they can be turned into valuable fibers widely used in composites.
Pineapple leaf fiber is a natural textile fiber extracted from the leaves of the pineapple plant. It is a sustainable material that has been gaining attention in recent years for its potential applications in various industries, including fashion and textiles. The fiber is strong, flexible, and lightweight, making it a versatile material for various applications, including structural applications, due to its unique properties.
Pineapple leaf fiber can be used in structural applications in various ways, such as reinforcing material, building material, furniture, and textiles. In composites, pineapple leaf fiber can be used as a reinforcing material. When mixed with a resin matrix, the fiber can add strength and stiffness to the composite material. The resulting material can be used in various structural applications, such as building materials, automotive components, aerospace airframes and constructions formed by bolted connections [93,94,95,96]. As a building material, pineapple leaf fiber can be used to create eco-friendly building materials such as tiles, panels, and insulation. These materials can be used in construction and provide a sustainable alternative to traditional building materials. Pineapple leaf fiber can also be manufactured into chairs, tables, and lamps. The fiber can be woven into different patterns to create a unique look and strengthen the furniture. Finally, pineapple leaf fiber can be transformed into clothing, bags, and accessories in textiles. The fiber is lightweight, breathable, and has natural antibacterial properties, making it an attractive option for fashion designers.
Pineapple leaf fiber is a sustainable and environmentally friendly material that can be used in various structural applications. Its unique properties make it a versatile material that can be used in different ways to provide strength, durability, and style to various products. As the demand for sustainable materials increases, pineapple leaf fiber is likely to become an even more critical material for structural applications in the future.
Currently, studies have also been exploring the use of pineapple leaf fiber in UAV applications. One of the main advantages of using pineapple leaf fiber in drones manufacturing is its lightweight and high strength-to-weight ratio. This makes it an ideal material for constructing UAVs frames, which must be strong and lightweight to achieve optimal flight performance [97,98]. Additionally, pineapple leaf fiber has been shown to have good mechanical properties, such as high tensile strength, making it resistant to deformation and breakage. This is a crucial feature for multirotor copters frames, which must withstand flight stresses and potential crashes [99].
Another advantage of using pineapple leaf fiber is its biodegradability, which makes it an environmentally friendly option for many kinds of UAV construction. Pineapple leaf fiber can decompose naturally, unlike other synthetic materials commonly used in drones manufacturing, which can take hundreds of years to break down. Table 4 below shows the mechanical properties of pineapple leaf fiber composites.
From Table 4, it can be seen that depending on the matrix, the mechanical properties of the composites will differ. By comparing composites of the same amount of composition (40%), epoxy yields better mechanical properties compared to polypropylene. Furthermore, with the addition of fiber treatment, the mechanical properties of the composites have been further enhanced. As for natural rubber and Polylactic acid with 25% fiber, it shows that Polylactic acid composite has better tensile strength, whereas natural rubber composite has better elasticity. In addition, with a proper fiber treatment and compatible matrix, the mechanical properties of the pineapple leaf fiber composites could exceed a pure polymer that is frequently used for UAVs manufacturing, as shown in Table 4.
In conclusion, using pineapple lead fiber in drones manufacturing shows promise as a sustainable and lightweight alternative to traditional materials. While further research and development are needed, this material has the potential to revolutionize the UAV’s industry and contribute to a more sustainable future.

5. Conclusions

The rapid growth of manufacturing technology has opened endless possibilities for using agricultural waste as another source of wealth. It can be said that there is no such thing as agricultural waste, but only things that science still has not found a way to utilize. Each of these materials has unique advantages that could help solve an existing problem. The review found that many agricultural wastes had been utilized in various production of ecological products. As manufacturing technology progresses, more waste can be converted into valuable products. The extracted waste fibers’ physical, mechanical, and chemical properties show that these agricultural wastes can produce better advanced composite materials suitable for structural applications. This also holds true for pineapple leaf fiber composites. Fiber extraction, done through scrapping, made the extraction tedious for farmers. Thus, plantation owners prefer to discard the leaves instead of utilizing them. However, acquiring a large amount of pineapple leaf fibers at a shorter time has become much easier with the emerging extraction technology. As studies on the utilization of agricultural waste progresses, more manufacturing and extracting technology are being developed. Thus, this will create a sustainable economy that will benefit a country’s development.

Supplementary Materials

Not applicable.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, F.S.S.; writing—original draft preparation, F.S.S.; writing—review and editing, F.S.S., M.T.H.S., A.L., and R.G.; visualization, F.S.S.; supervision, M.T.H.S and A.L..; project administration, F.S.S, A.L., and R.G.; funding acquisition, M.T.H.S., A.L. and R.G. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Authorship must be limited to those who have contributed substantially to the work reported.

Funding

The Malaysian Ministry of Higher Education funded this research through the PENJANA KPT–CAP (Career Advancement Programme).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data sharing does not apply to this article as no new data were created or analyzed in this study.

Acknowledgments

The authors would also like to express their gratitude to the Department of Aerospace Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, and the Laboratory of Biocomposite Technology, Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Product (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia (HICOE) for their close collaboration in this study.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Isaac Oluseun A, Olufemi Adebukola A. Agricultural Solid Wastes: Causes, Effects, and Effective Management. Strateg. Sustain. Solid Waste Manag., 2021, p. 134–253.
  2. Ahmed OH, Husni MHA, Awang Noor AG. The Removal and Burning of Pineapple Residue in Pineapple Cultivation on Tropical Peat: An Economic Viability Comparison. PertanikaJ Trop Agric Sci 2002;25:47–51.
  3. Alzate Acevedo S, Díaz Carrillo ÁJ, Flórez-López E, Grande-Tovar CD. Recovery of Banana Waste-Loss from Production and Processing: A Contribution to a Circular Economy. Molecules 2021;26. [CrossRef]
  4. Malomo GA, Madugu AS, Bolu SA. Sustainable Animal Manure Management Strategies and Practices. Agric Waste Residues 2018. [CrossRef]
  5. Fela K, Wieczorek-Ciurowa K, Konopka M, Woźny Z. Present and prospective leather industry waste disposal. Polish J Chem Technol 2011;13:53–5. [CrossRef]
  6. Singh SP, Jawaid M, Chandrasekar M, Senthilkumar K, Yadav B, Saba N, et al. Sugarcane wastes into commercial products: Processing methods, production optimization and challenges. J Clean Prod 2021;328. [CrossRef]
  7. Širá E, Kravčáková Vozárová I, Kotulič R, Dubravská M. EU27 Countries’ Sustainable Agricultural Development toward the 2030 Agenda: The Circular Economy and Waste Management. Agronomy 2022;12. [CrossRef]
  8. Peng X, Jiang Y, Chen Z, Osman AI, Farghali M, Rooney DW, et al. Recycling municipal, agricultural and industrial waste into energy, fertilizers, food and construction materials, and economic feasibility: a review. Environ Chem Lett 2023. [CrossRef]
  9. The World Bank. Agriculture and Food 2022. https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/agriculture/overview#:~:text=Growth in the agriculture sector,more than 25%25 of GDP.
  10. Ferronato N, Torretta V. Waste mismanagement in developing countries: A review of global issues. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2019;16. [CrossRef]
  11. Felgueiras C, Azoia NG, Gonçalves C, Gama M, Dourado F. Trends on the Cellulose-Based Textiles: Raw Materials and Technologies. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2021;9. [CrossRef]
  12. Sahin HT, Arslan MB. A study on physical and chemical properties of cellulose paper immersed in various solvent mixtures. Int J Mol Sci 2008;9:78–88. [CrossRef]
  13. Hosny KM, Alkhalidi HM, Alharbi WS, Md S, Sindi AM, Ali SA, et al. Recent Trends in Assessment of Cellulose Derivatives in Designing Novel and Nanoparticulate-Based Drug Delivery Systems for Improvement of Oral Health. Polymers (Basel) 2022;14. [CrossRef]
  14. Scheller HV, Ulvskov P. Hemicelluloses. Annu Rev Plant Biol 2010;61:263–89. [CrossRef]
  15. Sutay Kocabaş D, Köle M, Yağcı S. Development and optimization of hemicellulose extraction bioprocess from poppy (Papaver somniferum L.) stalks assisted by instant controlled pressure drop (DIC) pretreatment. Biocatal Agric Biotechnol 2020;29. [CrossRef]
  16. Ma C, Kim TH, Liu K, Ma MG, Choi SE, Si C. Multifunctional Lignin-Based Composite Materials for Emerging Applications. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2021;9. [CrossRef]
  17. Wu X, Jiang J, Wang C, Liu J, Pu Y, Ragauskas A, et al. Lignin-derived electrochemical energy materials and systems. Biofuels, Bioprod Biorefining 2020;14:650–72. [CrossRef]
  18. Zhang Y, Jiang M, Zhang Y, Cao Q, Wang X, Han Y, et al. Novel lignin–chitosan–PVA composite hydrogel for wound dressing. Mater Sci Eng C 2019;104. [CrossRef]
  19. Ebers LS, Arya A, Bowland CC, Glasser WG, Chmely SC, Naskar AK, et al. 3D printing of lignin: Challenges, opportunities and roads onward. Biopolymers 2021;112. [CrossRef]
  20. Yuliah Y, Kartawidjaja M, Suryaningsih S, Ulfi K. Fabrication and characterization of rice husk and coconut shell charcoal based bio-briquettes as alternative energy source. IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci., vol. 65, 2017. [CrossRef]
  21. Liu C, Luan P, Li Q, Cheng Z, Sun X, Cao D, et al. Biodegradable, Hygienic, and Compostable Tableware from Hybrid Sugarcane and Bamboo Fibers as Plastic Alternative. Matter 2020;3:2066–79. [CrossRef]
  22. Kabeyi MJB, Olanrewaju OA. Biogas Production and Applications in the Sustainable Energy Transition. J Energy 2022;2022:1–43. [CrossRef]
  23. Zheng M, Zhang K, Zhang J, Zhu LL, Du G, Zheng R. Cheap, high yield, and strong corn husk-based textile bio-fibers with low carbon footprint via green alkali retting-splicing-twisting strategy. Ind Crops Prod 2022;188. [CrossRef]
  24. Achuthan K, Muthupalani S, Kolil VK, Bist A, Sreesuthan K, Sreedevi A. A novel banana fiber pad for menstrual hygiene in India: a feasibility and acceptability study. BMC Womens Health 2021;21. [CrossRef]
  25. Merino D, Bertolacci L, Paul UC, Simonutti R, Athanassiou A. Avocado Peels and Seeds: Processing Strategies for the Development of Highly Antioxidant Bioplastic Films. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 2021;13:38688–99. [CrossRef]
  26. Raghuram, N. Raghuram N. Recycling crop and animal waste is a win for green farming. Nat India 2022. [CrossRef]
  27. Abed AM, Lafta HA, Alayi R, Tamim H, Sharifpur M, Khalilpoor N, et al. Utilization of Animal Solid Waste for Electricity Generation in the Northwest of Iran 3E Analysis for One-Year Simulation. Int J Chem Eng 2022;2022. [CrossRef]
  28. Arshad M, Ansari AR, Qadir R, Tahir MH, Nadeem A, Mehmood T, et al. Green electricity generation from biogas of cattle manure: An assessment of potential and feasibility in Pakistan. Front Energy Res 2022;10. [CrossRef]
  29. Oladele, I. Oladele I., Omotoyimbo JA, Ayemidejor SH. Mechanical Properties of Chicken Feather and Cow Hair Fibre Reinforced High Density Polyethylene Composites. Int J Sci Technol 2014;3:66–72.
  30. Patil K, Wang X, Lin T. Electrostatic coating of cashmere guard hair powder to fabrics: Silver ion loading and antibacterial properties. Powder Technol 2013;245:40–7. [CrossRef]
  31. Siddiqua A, Hahladakis JN, Al-Attiya WAKA. An overview of the environmental pollution and health effects associated with waste landfilling and open dumping. Environ Sci Pollut Res 2022;29:58514–36. [CrossRef]
  32. Tushar Uddin M, Abdur Razzaq M, Hai Quadery A, Jaman Chowdhury M, Al-Mizan, Moshrur Raihan M, et al. Extraction of Dye from Natural Source (LAC) & its Application on Leather. Am Sci Res J Eng 2017;34:1–7.
  33. Park JS, Kim SH, Kim YS, Kwon E, Lim HJ, Han KM, et al. Nonclinical safety evaluation of food colorant lac dye via systematic toxicity profiling with assessment of in vivo antigenic potential. Front Pharmacol 2022;13. [CrossRef]
  34. Singh AK, Ghosal S, Sinha NK, Kumar N. Utilization of Lac Factory Waste for Integrated Nutrient Management in Brinjal and Its Effect on Soil Fertility. Multilogic Sci 2018;8:246–9. [CrossRef]
  35. Kimothi SP, Panwar S, Khulbe A. Creating wealth from agricultural waste. 2020.
  36. Fazliyana A, Hamzah A, Hamzah MH, Man HC, Jamali NS, Siajam SI, et al. Recent Updates on the Conversion of Pineapple Waste ( Ananas comosus ) to Value-Added Products , Future Perspectives and Challenges. Agronomy 2021.
  37. Su C, Gong JS, Qin J, He JM, Zhou ZC, Jiang M, et al. Glutathione enables full utilization of wool wastes for keratin production and wastewater decolorization. J Clean Prod 2020;270. [CrossRef]
  38. The Council of Fashion Designers of America. FIBER GUIDE: SILK. CfdaCom 2021. https://cfda.com/resources-tools/materials-hub/article/fiber-guide-silk#:~:text=Silk Noils%3A Also known as,lower quality than filament silk. (accessed March 21, 2023).
  39. Jain J, Sinha S. Potential of Pineapple Leaf Fibers and Their Modifications for Development of Tile Composites. J Nat Fibers 2022;19:4822–34. [CrossRef]
  40. Khan GMA, Sarkar MA, Islam MM, Alam MS. Wet processing of agro-residual fibres for potential application in fancy décor items. Adv Mater Process Technol 2022;8:3215–30. [CrossRef]
  41. Yves OR, Christian FB, Akum OB, Theodore T, Bienvenu K. Physical and mechanical properties of pineapple fibers (leaves, stems and roots) from awae Cameroon for the improvement of composite materials. J Fiber Sci Technol 2018;76:378–86. [CrossRef]
  42. Thilagavathi G, Muthukumar N, Neela Krishnanan S, Senthilram T. Development and Characterization of Pineapple Fibre Nonwovens for Thermal and Sound Insulation Applications. J Nat Fibers 2020;17:1391–400. [CrossRef]
  43. Patel BY, Patel HK. Retting of banana pseudostem fibre using Bacillus strains to get excellent mechanical properties as biomaterial in textile & fiber industry. Heliyon 2022;8. [CrossRef]
  44. Silva FS, Ribeiro CEG, Demartini TJ da C, Rodríguez RJS. Physical, Chemical, Mechanical, and Microstructural Characterization of Banana Pseudostem Fibers from Musa Sapientum. Macromol Symp 2020;394. [CrossRef]
  45. Pandit, P. Pandit P. Characteristics & Properties of Banana Fibers. Text Value Chain 2020:4. https://textilevaluechain.in/news-insights/characteristics-properties-of-banana-fibers/#:~:text=The chemical composition of banana,upon the extraction %26 spinning process.
  46. Xu S, Xiong C, Tan W, Zhang Y. Microstructural, thermal, and tensile characterization of banana pseudo-stem fibers obtained with mechanical, chemical, and enzyme extraction. BioResources 2015;10:3724–35. [CrossRef]
  47. Rini DS, Ishiguri F, Nezu I, Ngadianto A, Irawati D, Otani N, et al. Geographic and longitudinal variations of anatomical characteristics and mechanical properties in three bamboo species naturally grown in Lombok Island, Indonesia. Sci Rep 2023;13:2265. [CrossRef]
  48. Nirmal Kumar K, Dinesh Babu P, Surakasi R, Kumar PM, Ashokkumar P, Khan R, et al. Mechanical and Thermal Properties of Bamboo Fiber-Reinforced PLA Polymer Composites: A Critical Study. Genet Res (Camb) 2022;2022. [CrossRef]
  49. Dessalegn Y, Singh B, Vuure AW va., Badruddin IA, Beri H, Hussien M, et al. Investigation of Bamboo Fibrous Tensile Strength Using Modified Weibull Distribution. Materials (Basel) 2022;15. [CrossRef]
  50. Gao X, Zhu D, Fan S, Rahman MZ, Guo S, Chen F. Structural and mechanical properties of bamboo fiber bundle and fiber/bundle reinforced composites: a review. J Mater Res Technol 2022;19:1162–90. [CrossRef]
  51. Ibrahim MIJ, Sapuan SM, Zainudin ES, Zuhri MYM. Preparation and characterization of cornhusk/sugar palm fiber reinforced Cornstarch-based hybrid composites. J Mater Res Technol 2020;9:200–11. [CrossRef]
  52. De Carvalho Mendes CA, De Oliveira Adnet FA, Leite MCAM, Furtado CRG, De Sousa AMF. Chemical, physical, mechanical, thermal and morphological characterization of corn husk residue. Cellul Chem Technol 2015;49:727–35.
  53. Sari NH, Wardana ING, Irawan YS, Siswanto E. Physical and Acoustical Properties of Corn Husk Fiber Panels. Adv Acoust Vib 2016;2016. [CrossRef]
  54. Jayamaui E, Rahman MR, Benhur DA, Bakri MK Bin, Kakair A, Khan A. Comparative study of fly ash/sugarcane fiber reinforced polymer composites properties. BioResources 2020;15:5514–31. [CrossRef]
  55. Bhatnagar R, Gourav G, Sachin Y. A Review on Composition and Properties of Bagasse Fibers. Int J Sci Eng Res 2015;5.
  56. Anwar, SI. Anwar SI. Determination of moisture content of bagasse of jaggery unit using microwave oven. J Eng Sci Technol 2010;5:472–8.
  57. Fematt-flores GE, Aguiló-aguayo I, Marcos B, Camargo-olivas BA, Sánchez-vega R, Soto-caballero MC, et al. Milk Protein-Based Edible Films: Influence on Mechanical, Hydrodynamic, Optical and Antioxidant Properties. Coatings 2022;12. [CrossRef]
  58. Yang Y, Reddy N. Properties and potential medical applications of regenerated casein fibers crosslinked with citric acid. Int J Biol Macromol 2012;51:37–44. [CrossRef]
  59. Thill S, Schmidt T, Wöll D, Gebhardt R. A regenerated fiber from rennet-treated casein micelles. Colloid Polym Sci 2021;299:909–14. [CrossRef]
  60. Zhan M, Wool RP. Mechanical properties of chicken feather fibers. Polym Compos 2011;32:937–44. [CrossRef]
  61. Reddy N, Yang Y. Structure and properties of chicken feather barbs as natural protein fibers. J Polym Environ 2007;15:81–7. [CrossRef]
  62. CHOUDARY RB, PRASAD AS, BHARGAVA NRMR. Feather fiber reinforced polyester composites. Mater Sci Res India 2007;4:487–92. [CrossRef]
  63. Tesfaye T, Sithole B, Ramjugernath D, Chunilall V. Valorisation of chicken feathers: Characterisation of chemical properties. Waste Manag 2017;68:626–35. [CrossRef]
  64. Mann GS, Azum N, Khan A, Rub MA, Hassan MI, Fatima K, et al. Green Composites Based on Animal Fiber and Their Applications for a Sustainable Future. Polymers (Basel) 2023;15:601. [CrossRef]
  65. Chaochai T, Imai Y, Furuike T, Tamura H. Preparation and properties of gelatin fibers fabricated by dry spinning. Fibers 2016;4. [CrossRef]
  66. Fukae R, Midorikawa T. Preparation of gelatin fiber by gel spinning and its mechanical properties. J Appl Polym Sci 2008;110:4011–5. [CrossRef]
  67. Chong EJ, Phan TT, Lim IJ, Zhang YZ, Bay BH, Ramakrishna S, et al. Evaluation of electrospun PCL/gelatin nanofibrous scaffold for wound healing and layered dermal reconstitution. Acta Biomater 2007;3:321–30. [CrossRef]
  68. Khan RA, Khan MA, Sarker B, Saha S, Das AK, Noor N, et al. Fabrication and characterization of gelatin fiber-based linear low-density polyethylene foamed composite. J Reinf Plast Compos 2010;29:2438–49. [CrossRef]
  69. Czaplicki, Z. Czaplicki Z. Properties and structure of polish alpaca wool. Fibres Text East Eur 2012;90:8–12.
  70. Jankowska D, Wyrostek A, Patkowska–Sokoła B, Czyż K. Comparison of Physico-mechanical Properties of Fibre and Yarn Made of Alpaca, Sheep, and Goat Wool. J Nat Fibers 2019. [CrossRef]
  71. Cheung HY, Lau KT, Ho MP, Mosallam A. Study on the mechanical properties of different silkworm silk fibers. J Compos Mater 2009;43:2521–31. [CrossRef]
  72. Asim M, Abdan K, Jawaid M, Nasir M, Dashtizadeh Z, Ishak MR, et al. A review on pineapple leaves fibre and its composites. Int J Polym Sci 2015;2015:6. [CrossRef]
  73. Chokshi S, Parmar V, Gohil P, Chaudhary V. Chemical Composition and Mechanical Properties of Natural Fibers. J Nat Fibers 2022;19:3942–53. [CrossRef]
  74. Adeoye MD, Lawal AT, Jimoh AO, Adelani AK, Ojo OO, Ndukwe NA, et al. Fascinating physical-chemical properties and fiber morphology of selected waste plant leaves as potential pulp and paper making agents. Biomass Convers Biorefinery 2021;11:3061–70. [CrossRef]
  75. Zhang M, Liu Q, Twebaze CB, Zhuang X, Kimani M, Zheng G, et al. The Effect of Activated Water Degumming Technique on Alkali-pretreated Banana Fiber. BioResources 2022;17:6775–88. [CrossRef]
  76. Martijanti M, Juwono AL, Sutarno S. Investigation of characteristics of bamboo fiber for composite structures. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng., vol. 850, 2020. [CrossRef]
  77. Bourmaud A, Beaugrand J, Shah DU, Placet V, Baley C. Towards the design of high-performance plant fibre composites. Prog Mater Sci 2018;97:347–408. [CrossRef]
  78. Aziz AA, Ismail S, Mahayuddin SA. a Review of the Factors Affecting the Properties of Bamboo Fiber Bio-Composite Materials. Malaysian J Sustain Environ 2023;10:275–98. [CrossRef]
  79. Duong NT, Satomi T, Takahashi H. Potential of corn husk fiber for reinforcing cemented soil with high water content. Constr Build Mater 2021;271. [CrossRef]
  80. Prasad L, Kumar S, Patel RV, Yadav A, Kumar V, Winczek J. Physical and mechanical behaviour of sugarcane bagasse fibre-reinforced epoxy bio-composites. Materials (Basel) 2020;13:1–13. [CrossRef]
  81. Pavan M, Samant L. Regenerated Milk Fiber: An Approach towards Green Textiles. Just Agric e-Newsletter 2022;3:6.
  82. Mwanza EP, van der Westhuizen WA, Boucher CE, Charimba G, Hugo C. Heterologous expression and characterisation of a keratinase produced by Chryseobacterium carnipullorum. Protein Expr Purif 2021;186. [CrossRef]
  83. Li Z, Reimer C, Picard M, Mohanty AK, Misra M. Characterization of Chicken Feather Biocarbon for Use in Sustainable Biocomposites. Front Mater 2020;7. [CrossRef]
  84. Roy AN, Samanta KK, Patra K. Physico-chemical properties of black yak fibre and its modification for blending with jute fibre. J Nat Fibers 2019;16:225–36. [CrossRef]
  85. Atav R, Ergünay U, Gürkan Ünal P. Determining the Effect of Pigmentation on Some Physical and Mechanical Properties of Yak and Cashmere Down Fibers. J Nat Fibers 2022. [CrossRef]
  86. GMIA. Gelatin Handbook. 2012.
  87. Hegazy EM, El-Sayed Khamis NH. Effect of fresh garlic and ginger on the shelf-life of Gelatin waste used for improvement of plant growth. World Appl Sci J 2014;30:83–8.
  88. Ulfa M, Trisunaryanti W, Falah II, Kartini I, Sutarno S. Synthesis of mesoporous carbon using gelatin as source of carbon by hard template technique and its characterizations. IOSR J Appl Chem 2014;7:01–7. [CrossRef]
  89. Kiron, MI. Kiron MI. Chemical Composition of Natural Fibers (Cotton, Jute, Flax, Hemp, Ramie, Sisal, Coir, Wool and Silk). Testile Learn 2022. https://textilelearner.net/chemical-composition-of-natural-fibers/.
  90. Parlato MCM, Valenti F, Midolo G, Porto SMC. Livestock Wastes Sustainable Use and Management: Assessment of Raw Sheep Wool Reuse and Valorization. Energies 2022;15. [CrossRef]
  91. Prof. Robert J. Lancashire. Unit - Chemistry of Garments: Animal Fibres. Chem Mona 2016.
  92. Kumar P, Sai Ram C, Srivastava JP, Behura AK, Kumar A. Synthesis of Cotton Fiber and Its Structure. Nat. Synth. Fiber Reinf. Compos., 2022, p. 17–36. [CrossRef]
  93. Łukaszewicz, A. Łukaszewicz A. Modelling of solid part using multibody techniques in parametric CAD systems. Solid State Phenomena 2009;147-149:924 9.
  94. Grzejda, R. Grzejda R. New method of modelling nonlinear multi-bolted systems, in: Advances in Mechanics: Theoretical, Computational and Interdisciplinary Issues, Proc. of the 3rd Polish Congress of Mechanics (PCM) and 21st International Conference on Computer Methods in Mechanics (CMM), Leiden, CRC Press 2016, p. 213–6.
  95. Grzejda, R. Grzejda R. Modelling nonlinear multi-bolted connections: A case of the assembly condition. In Proceedings of the 15th International Scientific Conference 'Engineering for Rural Development 2016', Jelgava, Latvia, 25-27 May 2016, p. 329–35.
  96. Grzejda, R. Grzejda R. Modelling nonlinear multi-bolted connections: A case of operational condition. In Proceedings of the 15th International Scientific Conference 'Engineering for Rural Development 2016', Jelgava, Latvia, 25-27 May 2016 p. 336–41.
  97. Grodzki W, Łukaszewicz A. Design and manufacture of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) wing structure using composite materials, Materialwissenschaft und Werkstofftechnik 2015;46(3):269–78.
  98. Mikołajczyk T, Mikołajewski D, Kłodowski A, Łukaszewicz A, Mikołajewska E, Paczkowski T, Macko M, Skornia M. Energy sources of mobile robot power systems: A systematic review and comparison of efficiency. Appl Sci 2023;13:7547.
  99. Šančić T, Brčić M, Kotarski D, Łukaszewicz A. Experimental characterization of composite-printed materials for the production of multirotor UAV airframe parts. Materials 2023;16:5060.
  100. Sayeed MMA, Sayem ASM, Haider J, Akter S, Habib MM, Rahman H, et al. Assessing Mechanical Properties of Jute, Kenaf, and Pineapple Leaf Fiber-Reinforced Polypropylene Composites: Experiment and Modelling. Polymers (Basel) 2023;15. [CrossRef]
  101. Afkari AS, Pratama RA, Juwono AL, Roseno S. Mechanical Properties of Pineapple Leaf Fiber/Epoxy Composites with 0°/0°/0°/0° and 0°/90°/0°/90° Fiber Orientations. J SAINS Mater Indones 2022;23:83–9.
  102. Jose S, Shanumon PS, Paul A, Mathew J, Thomas S. Physico-Mechanical, Thermal, Morphological, and Aging Characteristics of Green Hybrid Composites Prepared from Wool-Sisal and Wool-Palf with Natural Rubber. Polymers (Basel) 2022;14. [CrossRef]
  103. Suteja J, Firmanto H, Soesanti A, Christian C. Properties investigation of 3D printed continuous pineapple leaf fiber-reinforced PLA composite. J Thermoplast Compos Mater 2022;35:2052–61. [CrossRef]
  104. Anand PB, Lakshmikanthan A, Chandrashekarappa MPG, Selvan CP, Pimenov DY, Giasin K. Experimental Investigation of Effect of Fiber Length on Mechanical, Wear, and Morphological Behavior of Silane-Treated Pineapple Leaf Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composites. Fibers 2022;10. [CrossRef]
  105. Galatas A, Hassanin H, Zweiri Y, Seneviratne L. Additive manufactured sandwich composite/ABS parts for unmanned aerial vehicle applications. Polymers (Basel) 2018;10. [CrossRef]
Preprints 80566 g001
Figure 1. Types of agricultural wastes and some examples of wastes that can be utilized to generate wealth.
Figure 1. Types of agricultural wastes and some examples of wastes that can be utilized to generate wealth.
Preprints 80566 g001
Preprints 80566 g002
Figure 2. Basic architecture of plant fiber.
Figure 2. Basic architecture of plant fiber.
Preprints 80566 g002
Preprints 80566 g003
Figure 3. Accumulation of pineapple leaves at the plantation site.
Figure 3. Accumulation of pineapple leaves at the plantation site.
Preprints 80566 g003
Table 1. Agricultural waste disposal methods.
Table 1. Agricultural waste disposal methods.
Agricultural activity Wastes produced Disposal method Ref
Pineapple production Leaves, crown, core, peels, stems Dumping, burning, burying, decomposing [2]
Banana production Peels, stems, trunks Dumping, burning, burying, decomposing [3]
Animal production Left-over feed, wastewater, hatchery wastes, manure, carcasses Dumping, burning, buried [4]
Leather tanning Hair, bristle, flesh side, splits, trimmings, fleshing, splits trimmings, shavings, sludge Dumping [5]
Sugar processing Bagasse, cane trash, press mud, molasses Dumping, burning, buried [6]
Table 2. Physical and mechanical properties of fibers extracted from agricultural waste.
Table 2. Physical and mechanical properties of fibers extracted from agricultural waste.
Types Materials Density
(g/cm3)		 Tensile strength
(MPa)		 Young’s Modulus
(GPa)		 Ref
Crop waste Pineapple leaf fiber 0.95 – 1.53 460.00 – 1244.30 4.4 – 43 [39,40,41,42]
Banana stem fiber 0.22 – 0.96 210 – 914 16.36 – 32 [43,44,45,46]
Bamboo fiber 0.6 – 1.4 206.5 – 630 17 – 36 [47,48,49,50]
Corn husk fiber 1.16 –1.49 180 – 256 4.57 – 15.87 [51,52,53]
Sugarcane bagasse fiber 0.88 – 1.2 20 – 290 3 – 27.1 [54,55,56]
Animal waste Milk protein/casein fiber 1.30 37 – 116 2.08 – 7.4 [57,58,59]
Chicken feather fiber 0.78 – 0.90 130 – 220 3.0 – 4.5 [60,61,62,63]
Yak fiber 1.32 – 3.41 270.05 45.09 [64]
Gelatin fiber 1.2 – 1.58 91 – 170 2.0 – 3.1 [65,66,67,68]
Processing waste Wool waste fiber 1.29 – 1.31 130 – 210 2.6 – 3.6 [61,69,70]
Silk waste fiber 1.32 – 1.33 165.27 – 248.77 3.82 – 6.10 [71]
Recycled cotton fiber 1.5 – 1.6 287 – 597 5.5–12.6 [72]
Table 3. Chemical properties of agricultural waste fibers.
Table 3. Chemical properties of agricultural waste fibers.
Types Materials Chemical Properties (%) Ref
Crop waste Pineapple leaf fiber Cellulose: 64.4 – 72.14
Hemicellulose: 4.86 – 21.73
Lignin: 4.28 –13.55
Pectin: 1.3 – 1.6
Ash: 0.8 – 5.01		 [3,39,40,42,74]
Banana stem fiber Cellulose: 39.2 – 64
Hemicellulose: 10.2 – 27.8
Lignin: 11.40 – 27.77
Pectin: 2.1 – 2.78
Ash: 3.88		 [43,44,45,46,75]
Bamboo fiber Cellulose: 36.1 – 55.68
Hemicellulose: 11.4 – 19.15
Lignin: 16.93 – 28.5
Pectin: <1		 [76,77,78]
Corn husk fiber Cellulose: 43 – 45.7
Hemicellulose: 31 – 40
Lignin: 2 – 22
Ash: 0.36 – 6.4 		[51,52,79]
Sugarcane bagasse fiber Cellulose: 30 – 55
Hemicellulose: 20 – 28.25
Lignin:18 – 26
Pectin: 0.6 – 0.8
Ash: 3 – 10		 [55,80]
Animal waste Milk protein/casein fiber Carbon: 53.0
Hydrogen: 7.50
Oxygen: 23.0
Nitrogen: 15.0
Sulfur: 0.70
Phosphorous: 0.80		 [81]
Chicken feather fiber Protein: 82 – 91
Carbon: 64.47
Nitrogen: 10.41
Oxygen: 22.34
Sulfur: 2.64		 [63,82,83]
Yak fiber Protein: 65–95
Carbon: 51.09 – 58.3
Nitrogen: 13.47 – 18.2
Oxygen: 20.7 – 32.06
Sulfur: 2.09 – 2.3 		[84,85]
Gelatin/protein fiber Protein: 98 – 99
Carbon: 47.98 – 50.5
Nitrogen: 14.42 – 17
Oxygen: 25.2 – 29.44		 [86,87,88]
Processing waste Wool waste fiber Protein: 33
Carbon: 50
Nitrogen: 14 – 25
Oxygen: 10
Sulfur: 0.1 – 0.2		 [89,90]
Silk waste fiber Protein: 78 – 95
Nitrogen: 16.35
Sulfur: 3.65		 [89,91]
Recycled cotton fiber Cellulose: 90 – 94
Moisture: 6 – 7
Protein: 1 – 1.5
Pectin: 0.9
Ash: 1.2		 [92]
Table 4. Mechanical properties of pineapple leaf fiber composites.
Table 4. Mechanical properties of pineapple leaf fiber composites.
Fiber Matrix Fiber treatment Composition of fiber Density Tensile strength Young’s Modulus Ref
(%) (g/cm3) (MPa) (GPa)
Pineapple leaf fiber Polypropylene None 40 - 58 1.67 [100]
Pineapple leaf fiber Epoxy Alkaline (NaOH) treatment 40 1.18 93.82 4.24 [101]
Pineapple leaf fiber Natural rubber None 25 1.09 11.14 0.33 [102]
Pineapple leaf fiber Polylactic acid None 25 - 96.78 - [103]
Pineapple leaf fiber Polyester Silane treatment - - 55 2.3 [104]
None Polylactic acid None 0 1.27 56 3.37 [105]
None Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene None 0 1.05 26-31 2.18 –2.23 [105]
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.
Copyright: This open access article is published under a Creative Commons CC BY 4.0 license, which permit the free download, distribution, and reuse, provided that the author and preprint are cited in any reuse.
Prerpints.org logo

Preprints.org is a free preprint server supported by MDPI in Basel, Switzerland.

facebook logotwitter logolinkedin logo
MDPI Initiatives
Important Links
Subscribe

Disclaimer

Terms of Use

Privacy Policy

© 2024 MDPI (Basel, Switzerland) unless otherwise stated