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Internal Marketing and Burnout: The Application of the Job Demands-Resources Model

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01 August 2023

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02 August 2023

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Abstract
(1) Background: The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between IMO and burnout while assessing the contribution of job demands and resources on increasing internal orientation and worker well-being and, consequently, the levels of perceived performance; (2) Methods: Data were collected between April and December 2021 by completing an online questionnaire, developed in the Google Forms platform. The following descriptive statistics were analyzed: measures of central tendency (mean), dispersion (standard deviation), minimum value and maximum value. Next, Pearson's correlation coefficient was calculated to analyze the relationship between the variables under study.; (3) Results: The results showed the mediating effect of IMO between performance feedback and perceived performance, while burnout mediates the relationship between emotional and technology demands and perceived performance. (4) Conclusions: These conclusions demonstrate that constructive feedback might help a more efficient performance through better internal communication and the positive effects of technology demands could be the result of the interaction between personal and organizational resources.
Keywords: 
Subject: Public Health and Healthcare  -   Public, Environmental and Occupational Health

1. Introduction

The value of human capital in companies is extensively recognized as vital to remain competitive [1]. Today, more and more organizations depend on employees who use their full potential, are engaged and enthusiastic with their work, and generate creative and innovative ideas [2,3].
However, the changes that have occurred in the world of work, namely socio-economic changes, increased unemployment, job instability, precarious contracts, increased workload and pace of work, insecurity caused by the unpredictability of changes and reorganizations in companies, are associated with increased psychosocial risks with an impact on the physical and mental health of workers [4].
Kalia (2002) [5] and Leka & Jain (2010) [6] point out that occupational stress can influence performance and become a risk factor for different physical (e.g., hypertension, heart problems or obesity) and psychological (e.g., depression, anxiety, or addictions) health problems. In Europe, situations of stress or burnout are responsible for 50% to 60% of absenteeism from work [7], on the other hand, positive workplaces contribute to more engaged workers, improving their psychological well-being [8].
The assessment of occupational health and safety is among the obligations of employers in the European Union (Directive 1989/391/EEC) [9], although the current legislation addresses only the physical dimension of health, the growing debate has led the World Health Organization (WHO) to include burnout in the International Classification of Diseases in 2022, demonstrating the importance of research on this issue and the protective factors of workers [10].
Research in this area has consistently used the job demands-resources (JD-R) model to guide the development of organizational processes aimed at increasing engagement and preventing burnout [9]. The information collected through this model can be useful in the implementation of future actions that seek to increase job resources. In this context, internal marketing programs emerge as a tool that enables employee motivation and satisfaction through a varied set of activities, processes, and practices that include internal market analysis, internal communication, personal development, rewards, and job redesign and empowerment [1].
From a theoretical perspective, despite a significant evolution concerning the notion and content of internal marketing, the number of companies implementing it is still limited, possibly due to the lack of an underlying culture, an Internal Market Orientation (IMO), which refers to the commitment of organizations to their employees by understanding what they value and addressing their individual needs [11,12].
Thus, the present study aims to contribute to the solidification of research in internal marketing based on the JD-R conceptual model, in order to understand the contribution that job demands and resources may have in the relationship between IMO and burnout and, consequently, through workers' perceived performance levels.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Job Demands-Resources Model

The job demands-resources model [13,14] can be utilized as an integrative conceptual framework for monitoring psychosocial risks and improving workers' well-being [9].
According to this theory, all organizational environments or work characteristics can be divided into two categories, work demands or work resources [15]. Job demands refer to the physical, psychological, social, or organizational aspects of work that require prolonged physical and/or psychological effort and are associated with certain physiological and/or psychological costs [14].
Job resources refer to those physical, psychological, social, or organizational aspects of work that: a) are functional in achieving the goals related to job duties; b) reduce work demands and associated physiological and psychological costs; or c) stimulate personal growth and development [14].
High job demands increase the risk of burnout and lead to negative consequences, such as health problems or turnover intentions (health deterioration process), while job resources play a motivational role, stimulate engagement, and promote positive organizational consequences, such as performance and commitment to the organization [13].
Although they initiate different processes, both can also have a joint effect on well-being and indirectly influence performance [15]. The first interaction is one in which job resources mitigate the impact of demands on perceived tension, thus workers who have different job resources available are better able to cope with their daily demands. The second interaction is one in which job demands amplify the impact of resources on motivation and engagement [15].
The literature has confirmed the assumptions of this theory, a recent meta-analysis that evaluated different longitudinal studies concluded that the JD-R model is an excellent theoretical basis for assessing workers’ well-being in a diverse set of organizations [16]. Therefore, organizations should provide their workers with sufficient job challenges and resources and seek to apply interventions at the individual and organizational level for their occupational well-being [15].
Based on this assumption, a recent study aimed to analyze internal marketing as an organizational-level job resource to explain its positive relationship with flight attendants' happiness through the mediating effect of work-family reconciliation as a job requirement [17]. The results showed that different internal marketing strategies contributed to the levels of happiness of these workers, namely communication, social protection system, management's concern for reducing work-family conflict and increased facilitation of these binomial.

2.2. Internal Marketing

The term Internal Marketing (IM) was first proposed by Berry (1981) [18] as a management philosophy where employees were treated as internal customers and jobs were designed as products to satisfy and motivate them to offer a quality service. However, despite the growing literature over the years on the topic, no single, clear conceptualization of IM has been accepted, which caused research to take different perspectives [1].
A review of the literature by Rafiq and Ahmed (2000) [19], suggests three stages in the evolution of the concept, namely, the employee motivation and satisfaction phase, the customer orientation phase, and the strategic implementation/management change phase.
As a result of the review, the authors came up with the first integrative definition of IM, “a planned effort using a marketing-like approach to overcome organizational resistance to change and to align, motivate and interfunctionally co-ordinate and integrate employees towards the effective implementation of corporate and functional strategies in order to deliver customer satisfaction through a process of creating motivated and customer orientated employees” [19] (p. 454).
Although this view of IM seemed promising [12], there are still few organizations using it in practice [19], one possible reason being the absence of a consensus view of what IM is and what it can do for companies [11].
Recent research suggests that the market orientation [20] is an improved operationalization of marketing, however, it seems to ignore an internal focus on employees, necessary in modern product-service industries [21].
In this regard, Lings and Greenley (2005) [22] suggest that market orientation can be adapted to the context of employee-employer exchanges in the internal market and developed an Internal Market Orientation (IMO). It’s adoption predicts positive consequences for the organization and its workers, just as an external market orientation has consequences for the organization and its external clients.
Therefore, IMO emerges as a reflection of management concern, a strategic response to the functioning of their internal market and the exploration of integrated ways to improve the effectiveness of workers' roles, communication standards and human resource processes [11].
In this way, IMO presents three fundamental pillars: collecting relevant information from the internal market, disseminating that information among workers and employers, and responding to that information with proper IM strategies [11].
However, [11] points out that marketing programs solely will not be sufficient to align the company with its market given the lack of the appropriate culture, based on the market orientation paradigm [20], hypothesizing that the missing of a similar cultural "infrastructure" explains why IM is not yet widely implemented.
The author argues that in the literature there is only one reference to the cultural perspective on the companies’ efforts to create value for their internal market [21], but it has not been the object of empirical study, focusing instead in the development of a measure that evaluates the efforts for IM in companies [22].
Thus, [11] presented an alternative model in assessing the adoption of IMO, based on the approach of [21], which confirmed it and suggested that IMO is the philosophy behind IM efforts, while also supporting a direct influence on the effectiveness of these efforts [11].
In a recent systematic review, organizational culture and leadership style were found to be important concepts for successful implementation of the IM dimensions [1].
A more recent study showed that a supportive culture, through characteristics such as trust and openness, are determinants of IM and influence how communication is established, both factors consequently would contribute to how organizational support is perceived by employees [23].
Yu et al. (2020) [24] concluded that the success of IMO will also depend on how top managers gather information from employees and respond according to their concerns. It is pointed out how leadership is a relevant factor in strategy implementation, by engaging all departments and individuals in working together, there is a constant need for leaders to shape their organization so that it becomes more internal market oriented.
Consequently, the literature has pointed to the link between IM and job satisfaction, employee retention and the consequent performance index and customer satisfaction [19,21,25].
Another study by Yu et al. (2019) [25] highlights the effectiveness of IMO on worker retention in different industries other than just services, this one points out to an effect on organizational commitment through a partial mediation between IMO and worker retention, which contributed to organizational performance.

2.3. Burnout

The concept of burnout was originated by Freudenberger in the 1970s referring to a progressive emotional exhaustion and diminished motivation found among volunteer individuals in humanitarian organizations [27]. Based on his observations, Freudenberger (1974) [28] defined burnout as a state of physical and mental exhaustion caused by the individual's work life, thus exhausted workers were depleted of their energy resources and lost their dedication to work [27].
Even though there are numerous self-report measures to assess burnout, the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) became the measure of choice, meaning that the MBI measurement defines what burnout is and vice versa [29]. Its predominance combined with an interdependence between object and method can inhibit new findings to provide a better comprehension of burnout [30].
The issues raised have promoted the creation of a brand-new burnout assessment tool that can be used at the individual and organizational level, the Burnout Assessment Tool (BAT) [30]. This new conceptualization defines burnout as a state of work-related exhaustion that occurs among workers, characterized by extreme fatigue, reduced ability to regulate cognitive and emotional processing, and mental detachment. These main dimensions are accompanied by depressed mood and symptoms of psychological and psychosomatic distress.
This instrument distinguishes between core and secondary symptoms of burnout. Thus, the dimensions that constitute the core of burnout are: exhaustion (a severe lack of energy resulting in feelings of physical and mental exhaustion); an inability in emotional control (feeling overpowered by one's own emotions); an inability to control cognitively (indicated by problems with memory, attention, concentration deficits, and poor cognitive performance); and mental detachment (psychological detachment indicated by a strong reluctance or aversion to work) [30]. In addition to these core symptoms, it also includes the dimensions of psychological distress (e.g., sleep problems, worry, tension, or anxiety), psychosomatic complaints (exacerbated by or because of psychological problems), and depressed mood (characterized by a state of despondency or sadness and an inability to experience pleasure) [30].
The conceptualization of burnout used in BAT holds that the lack of energy needed to regulate cognitive and emotional processing is due to the extreme fatigue that the individual feels, that is, these regulatory functions are incapacitated and are subjectively experienced as a lack of control. In order to protect oneself and prevent a further loss of energy and control, mental detachment occurs by creating a disinterested, apathetic, and skeptical attitude towards one’s job [30].
Yet, the likelihood of this self-protective reaction to fail is high due to the evoking negative responses from others and impaired motivation and work performance, ultimately increasing stress levels. Thus, this detachment becomes part of the problem contributing to the reinforcement between exhaustion and inability to self-control, to control working conditions, to reduce demands and to increase work [30].
A recent systematic review noted consequences at the physical, psychological, and occupational levels in which burnout proved to be a significant predictor [31]. On the physical level it concluded consequences such as hypercholesterolemia, type II diabetes, coronary heart disease, hospitalization due to cardiovascular problem, musculoskeletal pain, prolonged fatigue, headaches, gastrointestinal problems, respiratory problems, serious injuries, and mortality before the age of 45. Regarding the psychological impact, insomnia, depressive symptoms, use of psychotropic and antidepressant medication, hospitalization due to psychological disorders, and symptoms secondary to psychological problems were found. While at the occupational level, the salient factors were dissatisfaction with work, absenteeism, disability pensions, work demands and resources, and presenteeism.

2.4. Individual Performance

Individual performance is considered the fundamental driver of the economy [32], research in management, occupational health, and work and organizational psychology has often used this construct as a consequential measure in organizational studies [33].
Individual performance can be defined as "the things people do, the actions they take, that contribute to the goals of the organization" [32] (p. 48). These actions must be identified as relevant to such goals, despite of whether they are specified in the job description, they represent behaviors that are under the control of the worker rather than the variables that determine those behaviors or their consequences.
The complex structure and dynamics of performance makes its assessment a very difficult process, especially with regard to inter-rater variability [32]. Research shows that self-assessments tend to be more favorable than when assessed by peers or supervisors, demonstrating an error of leniency, people are naturally motivated to present themselves in a favorable and socially desirable manner [33].
Individual processes of self-management and regulation of one's performance result in self-motivation and self-evaluation compared to set goals, in seeking further training, new self-placed goals, demands of feedback and self-efficacy might change [32]. The consequences of this process are reflected in different perceptions of performance, individuals perceive a high level of performance when they have high core self-evaluations and higher intrinsic motivation, these results show that workers who consider themselves to have higher self-esteem, self-efficacy, emotional stability, and internal locus of control may be more motivated and ultimately be able to improve their performance [34].
Much of the research and practice in organizational psychology and behavior is dedicated to planning interventions designed to enhance performance by increasing individual knowledge, skills, and motivational determinants of performance [32], such as mentoring programs that increase workers' performance by developing their psychological capital [35].
On the other hand, the field of occupational health has mainly focused on the relationship between health problems and individual performance losses due to absenteeism, illness or presenteeism, and on preventing these losses due to certain diseases or health-level debilitations [36].
In the light of the JD-R model, job strain has a negative effect on performance, since employees with high levels of exhaustion or health problems do not have enough energy resources to achieve their organizational goals [13], which may support the application of internal marketing strategies to prevent this attrition and consequently achieve the expected performance.
A recent study, during the COVID-19 pandemic, found that internal marketing has an indirect effect on reducing counterproductive work behaviors by increasing job satisfaction, a variable that has a direct effect and significant implications in organizations by increasing task performance and reducing counterproductive behaviors [37].

2.5. Theoretical Construction of the Hypotheses

The present study aims to understand the relationship between IMO and burnout syndrome, through the application of the JD-R conceptual model, by analyzing the contribution that job demands and resources may have in this relationship and, consequently, through workers' perceived performance levels.
Organizations should offer sufficient job challenges and resources, this commitment leads to a focus on workers' specific needs and problem solving in work contexts [13], which may contribute to the development of an IMO. In this sense, it is expected that:
H1. 
The presence of job resources contributes to IMO;
Creating value for employees, by fostering an understanding of employees’ value and addressing their needs (Gounaris, 2008b), contributes to employee satisfaction and engagement [38,39], thus, it may act as a resource to prevent the development of burnout. Thus, it is expected that:
H2. 
IMO and burnout levels are negatively related.
Based on the theory presented and the relationships between the hypothesized variables, we propose that IMO and burnout levels may serve as explanatory mechanisms of the influence that job characteristics have on organizational outcomes, namely, on individual performance. In this sense, we expect that:
H3. 
IMO mediates the relationship between job demands/resources and perceived individual performance.
H4. 
Burnout mediates the relationship between job demands and perceived individual performance.
The study's proposed model is depicted in Figure 1 and is based on the theoretical construction. With all hypotheses presented, we move on to the methodology, which will describe how the tests will be conducted to identify the possible relationships between the constructs investigated.

3. Methodology

3.1. Procedure

Data were collected between April and December 2021 by completing an online questionnaire, developed in the Google Forms platform, shared in social media and sent via e-mail to national companies from different areas of activity, public and private, whose application time was about 10 minutes. Before its completion, the participants were informed of the guarantee of anonymity and confidentiality in data processing, confirming their voluntary participation by advancing to the questionnaire itself, with no monetary rewards or of any nature. As for the inclusion criteria, participants would have to be currently employed.
As for the analysis procedure, the data were analyzed using IBM SPSS® (Statistical Package for Social Sciences, version 28) statistical software. The following descriptive statistics were analyzed: measures of central tendency (mean), dispersion (standard deviation), minimum value and maximum value. Next, Pearson's correlation coefficient was calculated to analyze the relationship between the variables under study.
Correlations were considered weak when r was less than .25; moderate between .25 < r ≤ .50; strong between .50 < r ≤ .75; and very strong if r > .75 [40]. Verification of the predictive power of the independent variables on the dependent variables was performed using multiple linear regression analyses.
To assess whether the variables are linearly independent, collinearity diagnostics were performed by calculating the collinearity statistics, namely Tolerance and VIF (Variance Inflation Factor), using as reference values for confirmation a value above .1 for Tolerance and the closest to 0 for VIF [41].
Finally, we conducted the mediation effects using the JASP® software (Jeffreys's Amazing Statistics Program - version 0.16.1), the mediation test was performed by calculating the confidence interval by the bias-corrected percentile bootstrapping method, if the values were within the 95% confidence interval, the indirect effect is significant and mediation is considered present [42].

3.2. Sample

The sample of the present study consisted of 369 subjects, of which 65.9% are female (n = 243) and 34.1% are male (n = 126). The age range of the participants is between 18 and 69 years ( x ¯ = 42.65, sd = 10.92). As for marital status, nearly half of the individuals were married (43.9%, n = 162), while 29.3% (n = 108) were single. As for educational background, most had a college degree (62.8%, n = 232).
A substantial part worked for the public sector (72.9%, n = 269), most held the position of senior technician (31.2%, n = 115), in the remaining cases, 15.2% (n = 56) were specialists in intellectual and scientific activities.
Most of the sample reported being employed (94.6%, n = 349), 3.0% (n = 11) were self-employed, 1.4% (n = 5) were on layoff and 1.1% (n = 4) were in training, 20.3% (n = 75) had management positions. They had a length of service between 0 and 45 years ( x ¯ = 15.34, sd = 11.13), in terms of working hours, 88.6% (n = 327) worked full time, 6.0% (n = 22) part time, 4.3% (n = 16) were on a rotating schedule and only 1.1% (n = 4) telecommuting. Regarding the pandemic situation, 21.7% (n = 80) answered that they had already contracted COVID-19.

3.3. Instrument

The model of work demands-resources was operationalized using the scale of Lee, Shin and Baek (2017) [43], which is being adapted for the Portuguese population. Regarding job demands (14 items), e.g., “I work under time pressure”, the scale assesses the dimensions of work overload (α = .90) emotional demands (α = .86) and technology demands (α = .89). Regarding job resources (11 items), e.g., “I receive sufficient information on the purpose of my work”, the dimensions assessed are job autonomy (α = .87), performance feedback (α = .87), and technology resources (α = .64). The items were measured on a 5-point Likert-type scale from 1 ("never") to 5 ("always").
Internal market orientation was measured using an instrument by Gounaris (2006) [11], adapted to the Portuguese language by Carlos and Rodrigues (2012) [44]. This instrument assesses the level of adoption of IMO based on the evaluation of the three dimensions through 43 items: 1) internal market intelligence generation (e.g., “Assessing our job satisfaction is an important task for our supervisor”); 2) internal intelligence dissemination (e.g., “My supervisor is sincerely listening about the problems I have doing my job”); and 3) response to intelligence (e.g., “The tasks I am assigned with help me to advance my career with this institution”). In the present study, IMO was assessed globally, which showed a Cronbach's alpha of .96. Responses were given on a seven-point Likert-type scale, from 1 ("strongly disagree") to 7 ("strongly agree"), the higher the score obtained in each dimension, the more the level of IMO is reflected.
To assess the levels of burnout, we used the Burnout Assessment Tool (BAT) of Schaufeli, Witte and Desart (2020) [30], adapted to the Portuguese population by an international consortium of researchers coordinated by the authors, which assesses the main symptoms (23 items) and secondary symptoms of burnout (10 items). In the present study, only the primary symptoms were analyzed, which consist of exhaustion (e.g., “At work, I feel mentally exhausted”; α = .92), mental distance (e.g., “I feel indifferent about my job”; α = .88), cognitive impairment (e.g., “At work I struggle to think clearly”; α = .84) and emotional impairment (e.g., “At work I may overreact unintentionally”; α = .90). The score is obtained from a 5-point Likert-type scale, from "Never" (1) to "Always" (5).
Performance levels were measured using a self-report scale of individual performance by Rego and Cunha (2005) [45], which is composed of a total of 6 items that assess internal performance (e.g., “I’m satisfied with the quality of my work”), and comparative performance (e.g., “Comparatively with workers in other organizations, I perform better than them”). In the present study, performance was assessed globally, which had a Cronbach's alpha of .86, on a 7-point Likert-type scale (from 1: "does not strictly apply at all to me" to 7: "completely applies to me").
In addition to the instruments mentioned above, the questionnaire also included some sociodemographic and professional questions, with the purpose of characterizing the sample.

4. Results

4.1. Correlations

Table 1 presents the correlational analysis between the variables under study, the results show, for the most part, a significant correlation between them (p < .01), and within each construct, the different dimensions tended to correlate significantly from moderate to strongly.
Resources and work demands showed a significant correlation with the Global IMO (r = .173 to .445), and this negative relationship with emotional demands was weak to moderate. Regarding the burnout scale, there was, in general, a significant correlation with negative burnout of work resources (r = -.140 to -.492) and positively with work demands (r = .176 to 0.543 ), of weak to moderate order.
As for the relationship between Global IMO and burnout, there was a significant negative correlation from weak to moderate (r = -.156 to -.385). Perceived individual productivity obtained a significant correlation with Global IMO and most work resources (r = .292 to .342), of moderate magnitude, and a significant negative correlation with most burnout dimensions (r = -.167 to -.226) , of low magnitude.

4.2. Regression

Through multiple linear regression analyses, it was observed that job resources showed a significant effect on IMO (see Table 2), this predictor contributes 46% to the explanation of the results [F(3, 365) = 103.7, p = <.001], where only the performance feedback dimension showed as a significant predictor variable (β = .629, t = 12.74, p = <.001). While job demands show a predictive power of 7.7% [F(3, 365) = 10.2, p = <.001], where emotional demands (β = -.271, t = -4.60, p = <.001) and technological demands (β = .158, t = 3.01, p = .003) are shown as a significant negative and positive predictor, respectively.

4.3. Mediation

To test hypotheses H3 and H4, the mediation effect between the variables under study was evaluated in two different models. First, the effect that job resources and demands (independent variables) have on individual perceived performance (dependent variable) through the Global IMO (mediating variable).
In the first model tested (Figure 2), the total effects showed that autonomy (β = .178, z = 2.46, p = .014), performance feedback (β = .363, z = 5.00, p = <.001), and work overload (β = .166, z = 2.43, p = .015) were a positive predictor of perceived individual performance, while technology resources revealed a negative effect on the latter (β = -.143, z = -2.30, p = .022).
The estimates of the indirect mediation effect presented in Table 3, considering the bootstrap bias-corrected 95% confidence intervals, showed that no zero was verified within the intervals, only for performance feedback on perceived individual performance via Global IMO [.007, .217], revealing IMO as a significant mediator of the effect that job resources exhibit on workers' perceived performance.
Secondly, because job demands constitute the best predictor of burnout, we analyzed the effect that, as independent variables, have on the dependent variable (individual perceived performance) through the Global Burnout (mediator variable), the result of the total mean value of all its dimensions.
In the second model tested (Figure 3), the total effects showed that work overload (β = .209, z = 2.90, p = .004) and emotional demands (β = -.130, z = -2.26, p = .024) were significant predictors of individual perceived performance, however, the first demand contributed to increased performance, the second exhibited a decreased.
The indirect mediation effect estimates presented in Table 4, considering the bootstrap bias-corrected 95% confidence intervals, showed that no zero within intervals were verified for emotional demands [-.198, -.039] and technological demands [.012, .097] on perceived individual performance via Global Burnout (GB), highlighting burnout as a significant mediator of the effect that job demands have on workers' perceived performance.

5. Discussion

The present study aimed to analyze the relationship between IMO and burnout syndrome, based on the JD-R conceptual model, in order to understand the contribution that job demands and resources may have in this relationship and, consequently, through the workers' perceived performance levels.
As for the factors that may contribute to the adoption of IMO, the results showed that job demands and resources are significant for its development, but in different directions, while emotional demands have a negative impact on this relationship, technology demands and performance feedback promote its realization, confirming H1.
Performance feedback allows workers to know what needs to be improved and decreases role ambiguity through high-quality communication [2]. One of the prerequisites for IMO is the commitment and motivation for interactive internal communication, one of its facets includes the information workers obtain from their supervisors regarding business goals or new policies [11]. Leaders can convey information that directly helps workers achieve goals, but also encourage ongoing personal development, this can be achieved by addressing the development of workers' needs implemented through coaching and feedback [46].
Regarding the role of job demands in this relationship, it can be explained by the influence that organizational culture presents on the adoption of IMO. Work environments with high emotional demands are associated with externally oriented, results-focused cultures, whose expectations of high performance and constant pressure to achieve goals can result in increased levels of work and more intense psychological demands [47]. Thus, it is expected that high demanding work environments do not facilitate an internal concern, contrary to those that prioritize workers and interpersonal exchanges, although a mix of internal culture with a more externally focused one potentiate an adoption of IMO by fortifying a market-oriented climate [48].
On the other hand, the forced use of technology resulting from the pandemic situation (Gonçalves et al., 2021), may have assisted in the development of a greater internal focus in organizations. Research indicates that technology emerged as a positive factor during the pandemic as it facilitated forms of communication, computerization of business, reduction in the impact of travel, improvement in administrative processes, and support in human resource management practices, such as recruitment and selection, training, and development [49]. These aspects are closely linked to the pillars advocated by the IMO, the impact on internal communications may have contributed to a better recollection of employee needs, subsequent job redesign, and knowledge and skills development [1].
Consequently, it was found that IMO and burnout dimensions showed a negative relationship, in that the higher the internal prioritization of organizations, the lower the levels of burnout experienced by workers, confirming H2. Previous studies show that IM is a strong moderator between organizational stress and burnout, a possible explanation is the perspective of IMO as a set of human resource practices that serve as an important organizational resource in the defense against certain work demands that, in turn, contribute to burnout [50].
The results highlighted the indirect effect of performance feedback on individual perceived performance through IMO, confirming H3. In line with these results, previous research argues that performance feedback can promote individual performance by clarifying the goals where focus is needed and increasing motivation levels through the recognition of work done [45,51]. Qiu et al. (2021) [1] point out to the rewards and recognition as one of the dimensions of IM, which together promotes worker’s satisfaction and in turn influence perceived performance [52].
Finally, it was observed that emotional demands contributed to increased levels of burnout and, in turn, the decrease of performance levels, confirming H4. These results meet the assumptions raised by Bakker and Demerouti (2017) [2], exhaustion caused by work demands result in lower performance rates, therefore, workers with high levels of exhaustion do not have the energy resources to achieve the proposed goals.
Secondly, technology demands appear to reduce burnout, which translated to higher perceived performance. Research has proven several negative effects of using technology in the work context, namely, on performance, satisfaction, and commitment [53].
However, a study by Yener, Arslan and Kilinç (2021) [54] showed that burnout caused by technology demands could be mitigated by the presence of technological self-efficacy. Workers with a greater sense of self-efficacy may believe they are better able to cope with the possible problems associated with remote work, particularly when the organizational climate facilitates that transition [55], decreasing the negative effect that technological insecurity may have on overall health [56].
In summary, the results obtained reinforce the role that job characteristics play in workers' well-being and determined their contribution in the internal orientation of companies, supporting the application of the JD-R model in this relationship. It was concluded that different resources (performance feedback) and demands (emotional and technological demands) give rise to two causal processes with consequences at the organizational level, resulting in more motivated workers or creating greater stress factors for them, which will translate into different levels of perceived performance.

Future Directions and Limitations

Future studies may look at the interaction between specific job resources and demands in contributing to an IMO, with the aim of delving deeper into which resources are predominant in the pursuit of internal market culture. The analysis of the motivation process in the present model, with the inclusion of engagement, may bring new conclusions about the explanatory mechanisms of the associations described. Based on the reciprocal effects that motivation presents in creating more job resources and a recent insight into how workers can also actively participate in value-creation activities with employers, future research may examine the ability of increasing IMO to influence the creation of more resources. Finally, due to the structural changes in the world of work with the digitalization of companies and the increase of telecommuting because of the COVID-19 pandemic, future studies should analyze the resources or demands that are significant in new forms of work organization and understand how IM practices can adapt to these new formats.
Despite the limitations mentioned, we believe that the results obtained contribute to research in the areas of occupational health and human resource management with practical implications for organizational leaders and managers.
Organizations should invest in feedback moments, whether formally planned, through annual/semi-annual performance evaluations, or informally planned, after completion of critical tasks or objectives. The implementation of psychosocial risk prevention programs can reduce emotional demands, such as redesigning functions or promoting job crafting, at the individual level, the introduction of stress reduction strategies, such as mindfulness or yoga.
The technological acceleration experienced in recent years has created opportunities for the digitalization of businesses and promoted new hybrid working models, which can combine 3 days of face-to-face work with 2 days of telecommuting, enabling the creation of workspaces at home through the provision of technological equipment and the strengthening of workers' technological skills to keep them up to date.

6. Conclusions

This study reinforces the relevance of the JD-R conceptual model as a guide in the assessment of psychosocial risks in the workplace [9]. By using the JD-R model as a guide in the assessment of psychosocial risks, organizations can gain a deeper understanding of the factors that impact employee well-being and performance. This knowledge can inform the development of targeted interventions and strategies to reduce harmful job demands, enhance job resources, and create a healthier and more productive work environment.
Additionally, contributes to the literature around Internal Marketing, which is often fragmented and inconsistently conceptualized [1], exploring it through a conceptual model that is not limited to the behavioral aspect of IMO practices, but seeks to respond to its cultural component as a relevant antecedent in organizations. The burnout construct was also assessed according to a recent instrument that presents a new conceptualization of this syndrome [30], countering the criticism regarding the exclusive use of the Maslach Burnout Inventory in its assessment.
Despite the contributions mentioned, this study has some limitations that may affect the results found, which future research should address. In terms of the sample surveyed, most of the workers were public service employees, which prevents the generalization of the results given that only reflect the practices and policies specific to this context. Finally, the occupations analyzed were mostly related to intellectual or scientific activities, which also makes it impossible to transpose the conclusions to other levels of activity.
As for the methodology used, the exclusive use of self-report measures may incur in common methodological biases [57], namely, social desirability, participants may want to present themselves in a socially acceptable way and refuse to state burnout symptoms or indicate higher performance levels.

Author Contributions

The design of the study, theoretical framework, methodology definition, and article review were carried out by Tiago Sobral and Joana Vieira dos Santos. Data collection was performed by Tiago Sobral. The preliminary data analysis and interpretation were conducted by Tiago Sobral and Luis Felipe D. Lopes. The discussion and applied interpretation of the data were carried out by all authors. Final version was reviewed by Tiago Sobral, Joana Vieira dos Santos, Luis Felipe D. Lopes and Sónia P. Gonçalves.

Funding

This work was funded by national funds through Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT) as part of the CIP project (Ref. UID/PSI/04345/2020).

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Scientific Council of Faculty of Human and Social Scinces at University of Algarve (21.04.2021).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

The authors will make the raw data supporting the conclusions of this study available without restriction.

Acknowledgments

This study resulted from technical cooperation between the University of Algarve (UAlg) of Portugal and the Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM) of Brazil.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Research model.
Figure 1. Research model.
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Figure 2. IMO Mediation Model between Job Resources/Demands and Perceived Individual Performance.
Figure 2. IMO Mediation Model between Job Resources/Demands and Perceived Individual Performance.
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Figure 3. Burnout Mediation Model between Job Demands and Perceived Individual Performance.
Figure 3. Burnout Mediation Model between Job Demands and Perceived Individual Performance.
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Table 1. Correlations matrix of the variables in study.
Table 1. Correlations matrix of the variables in study.
Dimension 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1 1.000
2 .414** 1.000
3 .675** .577** 1.000
4 .387** .464** .484** 1.000
5 −.033 −.072 .073 .073 1.000
6 −.214** −.189** −.172** −.152** .522** 1.000
7 .136** .173** .214** .445** .278** .147** 1.000
8 −.298** −.355** −.354** −.291** .445** .543** −.058 1.000
9 −.385** −.434** −.492** −.286** .085 .356** −.154** .651** 1.000
10 −.156** −.209** −.222** −.140** .196** .322** .013 .553** .550** 1.000
11 −.279** −.259** −.343** −.256** .176** .454** −.092 .599** .697** .678** 1.000
12 .292** .258** .342** .079 .107* −.043 .023 −.061 −.226** −.167** −.196** 1.000
Notes. 1 = IMO Global; 2. Autonomy at Work; 3. Performance Feedback; 4. Technological Resources; 5. Work Overload; 6. Emotional demands; 7. Technological demands; 8. Exhaustion; 9. Mental Distance; 10. Impairment in Cognitive Control; 11. Impairment in Emotional Control; 12. Perceived Individual Performance. *p < .05. **p < .01.
Table 2. Multiple Linear Regression of Job Resources and Demands on Global IMO.
Table 2. Multiple Linear Regression of Job Resources and Demands on Global IMO.
Hypothesis / Dimension
(H1)		 Global IMO
Path Coeffcient z-value p-value
Autonomy at Work .016 .337 .737
Performance Feedback .629 12.74 < .001
Technological Resources .075 1.65 .100
r2 .460
p-value < .001
Work overload .065 1.08 .282
Emotional Demands −.271 −4.60 < .001
Technological Demands .158 3.01 .003
r2 .077
p-value < .001
Table 3. Direct, indirect, and total IMO effects between Job Resources/Demands and Perceived Individual Performance.
Table 3. Direct, indirect, and total IMO effects between Job Resources/Demands and Perceived Individual Performance.
Hypothesis / Path relation Path Coefficient Std. Error z-value p-value 95% CI
Lower Upper
Direct Effect
AW → Prd .178 .072 2.475 .013 .009 .352
PF → Prd .263 .087 3.033 .002 .103 .438
TR → Prd −.154 .062 −2.479 .013 −.288 −.025
WO → Prd .174 .068 2.547 .011 .021 .317
ED → Prd −.040 .056 −.721 .471 −.166 .087
TD → Pro −.038 .058 −.654 .513 −.166 .104
Indirect Effect (H3)
AW → IMO → Prd −2.105e-4 .008 −.027 .979 −.025 .016
PF → IMO → Prd .100 .049 2.066 .039 .007 .217
TR → IMO → Prd .011 .009 1.290 .197 −.001 .044
WO → IMO → Prd −.007 .008 −.895 .371 −.037 .005
ED → IMO → Prd −.009 .007 −1.193 .233 −.038 .002
TD → IMO → Prd −.002 .006 −.275 .783 −.021 .011
Total Effect
AW → Prd .178 .072 2.458 .014 .005 .349
PF → Prd .363 .073 5.003 < .001 .226 .503
TR → Prd −.143 .062 −2.296 .022 −.272 −.015
WO → Prd .166 .068 2.428 .015 .018 .314
ED → Prd −.049 .056 −.876 .381 −.176 .078
TD → Prd −.040 .059 −.680 .496 −.166 .099
Notes. CI = Confidence Interval; AW = Autonomy at Work; PF = Performance Feedback; TR = Technological Resources; WO = Work Overload; ED = Emotional Demands; TD = Technological Demands; Prd = Perceived Individual Performance.
Table 4. Direct, Indirect and Total Effects of Burnout between Job Demands and Perceived Individual Performance.
Table 4. Direct, Indirect and Total Effects of Burnout between Job Demands and Perceived Individual Performance.
Path relation Path Coefficient Std. Error z-value p-value 95% CI
Lower Upper
Direct Effect
AW → Prd .232 .071 3.273 .001 .079 .381
ED → Prd −.021 .063 −.326 .745 −.170 .132
TD → Prd −.052 .056 −.922 .357 −.177 .078
Indirect Effect (H4)
AW → GB → Prd −.023 .015 −1.476 .140 −.064 .004
ED → GB → Prd −.110 .031 −3.594 < .001 −.198 −.039
TD → GB → Prd .045 .016 2.792 .005 .012 .097
Total Effect
AW → Prd .209 .072 2.904 .004 .048 .359
ED → Prd −.130 .058 −2.257 .024 −.247 −.014
TD → Prd −.007 .056 −.127 .899 −.141 .126
Notes. CI = Confidence Interval; AW = Autonomy at Work; ED = Emotional Demands; TD = Technological Demands; GB = Burnout Global; Prd = Perceived Individual Performance.
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