1. Introduction

2. Materials and Methods

3. Results

3.2. Firefighters’ Lessons Learned from the 2017 Wildfires

From the 125 respondents, 159 statements were identified and organized into 7 topics; each of them in turn divided into one or more items, for a total of 16 (Table 3). The topics here listed are not in decreasing order of instances but rather in terms of logical sequence: Fire behavior (26; 16.35%); Fire exceeding control capacity (14; 8.81%); Material and human resources (13; 8.18%); Defense system organization (21; 13.21%); Strategies and tactics (40; 25.16%); Preparation (12; 7.55%); Proactive initiatives and actions (33; 20.75%). Strategies and tactics are clearly the dominating category, followed by Proactive initiatives and actions both representing 45.91% of the instances.

A point-by-point discussion of results follows, with the transcription of some representative statements by respondents, translated from the original replies in Portuguese.

3.2.1. Fire Behavior

The fire behavior topic is split into two items. Changes in fire behavior, recognized by 24 firefighters (11 PF and 13 VF, respectively), and Awareness of the future repeatability of the 2017 fires, which is mentioned by only 1 PF and 1 VF.

• Changes in fire behavior

Out of the 24 firefighters who mentioned changes in fire behavior, a vivid depiction emerged of the unprecedented extremeness experienced during the 2017 wildfires in Pedrógão Grande and October. These firefighters highlighted the exceptionally high rate of spread and unpredictability, which they had never encountered before in their firefighting careers [1]. The most used terms to express the fire behavior are “(…) very fast, violent, (…) rapid and less predictable” (PF#25), “(…) aggressive” (VF#31), “(…) accompanied by abnormal propagation speed (VF#26) and “(…) enormous proportions in a short period of time” (VF#20).

The sudden changes are attributed to “(…) violent meteorological phenomena” (PF, P139), “(…) atypical and extreme meteorological conditions” (VF, P26), and “climate change” (VF#31; VF#152).

• Awareness of the 2017 fires repeatability in the future

There appears to be limited awareness regarding the possibility of extreme fire events reoccurring. Only two firefighters consider that EWEs can occur: “(…) in the short term and more intensely” (VF#43), and what happened in 2017 “(…) should it happen again, it could be the same, or worse” (PF#146).

Some concern about preparation is revealed by two firefighters as “(…) the behavior of forest fires is changing and that the need to adapt is not being addressed” (PF#161), and “(…) few things had improved” (PF#146).

3.2.2. Fire Exceeding Control Capacity

• Impossible to fight certain fires

Although 26 firefighters recognize changes in fire behavior, only 14 respondents (5 PF and 9 VF) consider that the 2017 wildfires were “(…) humanly impossible to fight” (VF#163).

Respondents never explicitly mentioned the term control capacity or limit of suppression [13]. Only a scant minority of respondents acknowledge some limit: “(…) twice as many firefighters or crews would have the same result” (VF#48), and “(…) in this type of fire ground fighting is not possible, only protection of populations and settlements” (VF#158).”

3.2.3. Material and Human Resources

• More material and human resources

Insufficient material and human resources are mentioned by 13 respondents, eluding to the lack of effectiveness in fighting the 2017 EWEs: “The fight was not effective with the few resources we had, and we could not involve the entire area due to its size” (VF#142). In addition, the simultaneous fires in October 2017 provoked “(…) the dispersion of means and lack of them (…)” (VF#140).

It was mentioned that “Due to climate change, fires are increasingly aggressive, and we are not prepared for an effective combat with the existing means” (VF#31).

The belief that all fires can be effectively controlled with increased material and human resources reflects a lack of awareness regarding the nature of extreme wildfire events (EWEs) and their operational limitations. In addition to the call for more resources, there is also an advocacy for better remuneration for firefighters.

3.2.4. Defense System Organization

Defense system organization issues are mentioned by 21 respondents (7 PF and 14 VF). This topic is split into two items: Governance/Coordination Issues, and Communication in the operational theatre.

• Governance/Coordination Issues

Governance/Coordination issues were mentioned by 17 firefighters (7 PF; 10 VF). One of the problems identified was the “Need to improve the organization of the combat forces and their coordination “(VF#126). It can be explained by “(…) weaknesses in the command of fires” (VF#155), “Bad coordination in the command post.” (VF#53), and by “Command positions, chiefs and ranks of operatives, occupied [by people] with lack of experience, training, and discipline (PF#22).

Respondents also claim an excessive number of entities intervening in the same operation: “The effectiveness of operations may improve (…). If each Civil Protection agent was dedicated only to its main mission everything would go better, and the command and control would be more effective. Too many entities too many commands too much noise (….)” (VF#152).

Some readiness issues were also identified: “The Combat Groups, besides the pre-positioned ones, take a long time to form, dislocate and reach the theater of operations” (PF#22); this negatively influences the initial attack which “(…) should be as committed and muscular as possible, especially in multi-occurrences in the same municipality/district” (PF#22). The availability and the readiness of machinery were mentioned too: “Need for more tracked machines available and with less time for activation” (VF#126).

Logistical challenges, particularly regarding the availability of food and fuel for vehicles, were also identified as significant issues: “Logistics (food/fuel) very difficult to manage when climbing beyond SGO [sistema de gestão de operações, in Portuguese; Operation management system, in English ] Phase III mainly”(PF#22).

• Communication in the operational theatre

Communication issues in the operational theatre, mentioned by only 4 firefighters, highlighted three main aspects. Firstly “(…) many communication failures” (VF#131). Effectively, SIRESP, the Portuguese Integrated System of Emergency and Safety Networks (O Sistema Integrado de Redes de Emergência e Segurança de Portugal, in Portuguese) collapsed in the Pedrógão Grande fire [5]. In the October 2017 fires, the problem recurred: “Frequent complete absence of communications of any kind, at many moments the only possible form of communication was the social networks and other forms of communication through the Internet, namely through mobile phones with which it was impossible to use GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) services” [6].

Secondly, the experience of communication failures highlights the need for an urgent response to address this issue. Lack of communication is also perceived in terms of personal safety “(…) communication is extremely important in a theatre of operations, without it we feel "lost" and "isolated” (VF#131).

Problems of scarce and difficult interaction within operating forces were finally identified:” Unfortunately, in Portugal, we have several types of forces to fight forest fires and each one of them speaks a different language, has a different level of education, and experience, they can hardly understand each other on the theatre of operations when each agent will act differently” (VF#23).

3.2.5. Strategies and Tactics

The topic Strategies and Tactics was mentioned by 40 respondents and comprises three items. The most representative is Personal and team safety (32 instances; 20.13%), followed by Changes in strategies and tactics (7; 4.40%). Limitation in the use of water was mentioned by only one respondent.

• Personal and team safety

Personal and team safety gathers 32 mentions, i.e., 20.13% of the total. The need for operations based on awareness rather than impulse is clearly emphasized: ”We should never forget the safety conditions, and if the fire is not within our reach, we have to admit it and ask for help. We should never act on impulse” (PF#133). Replies focus mainly on the correct use of PPE (Personal Protective Equipment) (e.g., VF 11; PF12) and LACES, the internationally recognized safety protocol (Lookout(s) - Anchor point(s) - Communication(s) - Escape routes - Safety zone(s) [14]. One of the firefighters states that “It is imperative that the entire team is knowledgeable about the LACES protocol. So that safety is always ensured” (VF#33).

Beyond personal safety, the importance of team safety is mentioned (e.g., PF,12; PF,58) and the focus of firefighters is to guarantee the safety of village inhabitants mainly through evacuation (PF,134; VF,136).

Negative comments on the current procedure for the distribution of security equipment are also present “(…) It makes no sense the continuous neglect of personal protective equipment and combat equipment allocated to firefighters” (VF#158).

• Changes in strategies and tactics

Changes in strategies and tactics were mentioned by 7 respondents (5 PF and 2 VF) with a focus on the initial attack, which “(…) must be muscular at all levels, land, and air” (VF#14).

The change in paradigm is implicitly recognized and advocated also: “ (…) increasingly we will have fires with extreme behavior and for longer periods, and the necessary evolution passes more by forest management and not so much by the fight” (PF#24).

• Limitation in the use of water in direct attack

The presence of fire events that exceed control capacity, although described but not explicitly acknowledged, is confirmed by a single comment regarding the use of water in a direct attack, which remains the primary tool of the current suppression paradigm in many countries, including Portugal: ”(…) the use of water for direct combat is not the most effective way to fight fires of large proportions” (VF#186). The limited efficacy of water use in a direct attack [15,16] does not seem to be widely recognized by the respondents.

3.2.6. Preparation

This topic with 12 instances (i.e., 7.55% of the total) is split into Firefighters’ preparation, with the higher number of instances (8 instances, 1 from PF and 7 from VF) and Firefighters‘ endurance (4 instance, 1 from PF and 3 from VF).

• Firefighters’ preparation

Many respondents acknowledge the lack of preparedness to combat fires of the magnitude experienced in 2017. However, it is important to note that this recognition is not universal among all respondents: “Portugal was not prepared for an event of this size and characteristics” (VF#150). Thus, the focus is shifted to the extreme characteristics of fire and the insufficiency of means: ”Due to climate change, fires are increasingly aggressive and we are not prepared for an effective fight with the existing means (VF#31); a “Lack of response capacity for multiple/large fire scenarios” (VF#36). Three respondents argue there is a lack of preparation with the existing means, but do not realize the limits of control capacity.

Other critical remarks denounce a deficit of experience and training of the teams (e.g., “The big failure for me was the lack of experience of the teams to fight” (VF#147), pointing out that ”Firefighters should be required to meet stricter criteria for education, training, and knowledge. The philosophy of everyone passing is no longer admissible. Just as we cannot all be doctors, we cannot all be firemen” (VF#158).

Professionalism and operational knowledge of the terrain are also under critical scrutiny, highlighting the importance of these factors in effectively responding to wildfires. “It makes no sense that a COS [commander of the relief operation] comes from another municipality and takes a position only by graduation, without knowledge of the territory, and expected behavior of local fires. The surveillance, command, and action should belong to the same structure, in this case, more knowledgeable and more capable firefighters to agglomerate all these activities” (VF#158).

The importance of knowledge is also fully recognized: ”I defend the motto "Saves Who Knows" Only who has the knowledge and capability can save lives and not "Life for Life". In my opinion, the motto "Saves Who Knows" complements the previous one with the knowledge of the cause, because if before acting we know how to recognize all the associated risk factors, the success rate and safety in the operation will be higher” (VF#23).

The respondents' description reflects a sense of anxiety regarding professional growth and advancement in their field: “Each operative must want to evolve physically, psychologically, and with knowledge of the cause. We cannot sit and wait for the System to come to instruct us; we must seek this instruction at a personal/private level” (VF#23).

• Firefighters’ endurance

Four comments were considered (1 from PF and 3 from VF) that refer to moods or emotive reactions, expressed with rhetorical accents: “Volunteer firefighters never give up fighting a fire of these dimensions, even with the difficulties caused by smoke, flame spread, and heat” (VF#162) “. We are so big and at the same time so small” (VF#178); “I take it that our strength compared to the strength of Nature is nothing” (PF#170).

3.2.7. Proactive Initiatives and Actions

The proposed solutions to combat EWEs appear to be controversial yet balanced. While a considerable number of respondents advocated for reinforcing suppression efforts, a group of 33 firefighters, predominantly volunteers, recognized the significance of proactive initiatives and actions aimed at preventing fire outbreaks, reflecting a diversity of perspectives and approaches.

• Prevention

The “(…) need to invest more in prevention” (VF#180; VF#17) is recognized and is mainly identified in terms of fuel management initiatives: “Invest more in fuel management” (VF#18). Prevention was advocated by 22 respondents as “Prevention is the best fight” (VF#13) and should be done “(…) throughout the year (…)” (VF#148). There is a “Lack of cleanliness, near the industrial zones and the houses, villages, cities” (PF#39), and in addition “ (…) the incompleteness of the work of land cleaning” (….).

The aspiration to expand fuel management efforts beyond the Wildland Urban Interface is advocated, with the need for better intervention of the “(…) authorities to supervise the cleaning of land within the perimeters of the villages” (VF#2).

Respondents emphasized that fuel management should encompass the cleaning of forests as well. They recognized that this approach not only influences fire behavior but also contributes to the safety of firefighters. As one respondent pointed out ”More security. And the main thing is prevention through forest clearing” (PF#58).

The need to create “(…) more accesses” (PF#135) also mentioned, as it helps in organizing and deploying suppression activities during fires, but inevitably leads to a higher number of individuals entering and traversing forests. Unfortunately, not all individuals exert prudence or caution when navigating these areas, potentially leading to risky situations. In addition, when more access is possible, it is also necessary to restrict or deny it, should wildfire risk reach critical levels [17].

Other suggested prevention measures include “(…) containment strips as well as water supply points” (VF#P6). The initiative of containment strips reiterates the traditional creation of fire breaks or fuel breaks, currently considered less efficient in comparison with areal interventions [18].

Both groups mention generic “cleaning” operations of forest and urban areas, but without a clear awareness of their meaning, implementation, and expected efficacy. Such replies seem more an expression of common sense than professional knowledge of the problem of extreme fires.

For more effective prevention strategies, solutions are also sought in better equipment and higher remuneration to foster motivation.

• Surveillance

Only one respondent mentioned that one of the problems is the “(…) lack of control and surveillance” (PF#139).

• Increasing penalties

Penalties are mentioned just once as a measure of containment of fire ignitions: “ (…) exemplary penalties on the people who caused these fires instead of considering them always as crazy people" (PF#127.)

Law enforcement plays a vital role in fire prevention efforts, aimed at the prevention of fire outbreaks or minimizing fire severity and spread. Penalties serve as a crucial element in this strategy, designed to act as a deterrent [19,20], but their implementation faces challenges, particularly in cases of voluntary fires where identifying clear criminal perpetrators is rare.

3.2.8. Word Cloud

In this section, we report the graphs and the statistics of the word cloud. The most frequently used words are fire, safety, preparation, lack, and firefighting (Figure 1). The high representativeness of the terms fire, combat, and firefighting shows the importance given to suppression. In addition, there is attention paid to the safety and preparation of the firefighters’ teams. Of notable interest is the representativeness of the word lack, expressing organizational and managerial shortcomings whereas the word need arguably refers to resource paucity and insufficient training among others.

Figure 1. Lessons learned: Word frequency analysis with the word cloud method and bar graph.

Figure 1. Lessons learned: Word frequency analysis with the word cloud method and bar graph.

3.3. Improvement Suggestions

Table 4 reports the 161 replies (55 PF, and 106 VF, 34.16 % and 65.84% respectively) to the second question, which are summarized in 5 topics, 13 items, and 23 sub-items. 82 firefighters did not respond, of which 54 PF and 28 VF, 50.47% and 20.74 %, respectively. The topic with the highest number of instances is Defense System Organization (63 instances, 23 from PF and 40 from VF). The two following topics are Preparation (39 instances, 13 from PF and 26 from VF), and Material and human resources (34 instances, 14 from PF and 20 from VF). The other two topics, Proactive initiatives and actions, and Strategies and tactics, have lower representation. The multiplicity of instances with low numerical value suggests a general lack of overview of the problem, which is fragmented into many individuals with highly heterogeneous answers.

A point-by-point discussion of topics and items follows, accompanied by the statements of selected respondents. It is notable that in some instances, the responses appear almost identical, suggesting that the respondents may have discussed and shared their perspectives within the same team or group.

3.3.1. Defense System Organization

This topic encompasses three main items (i.e. Governance and coordination issues, communication in the operational theatre, and firefighters’ career and work conditions) with a plethora of sub-items, most of them with a very low number of mentions.

• Governance and coordination issues

In this item, 10 sub-items were considered (Table 4). The respondents made several suggestions to improve the current system. The first group of opinions is related to the relationship between the firefighters and Civil Protection Authority (ANEPC, in Portuguese). A single command is the most scored sub-item (with 29 instances) throughout the entirety of question 2. Unification of command for the fire brigades appears to be the most felt and inescapable need by both PF and VF (12 and 17 instances, 21.82 % and 16.04% respectively). A “(...) single command in the Voluntary Fire Brigade. There should also be a single organized command within the fire fighters’ structure with greater rigor, discipline, and knowledge” (PF#139). The ANEPC structure is autonomous and independent of the government and the Unification of command is motivated by different reasons including:

(i) political protection of the category, for instance: “If things continue this way no one will defend us or represent us, and [give] more support for firemen; we are running short of men, we are tired of being treated badly by the government, especially by the Prime Minister” (VF#125)

(ii) control and command chain: “Single command of all forces in order to streamline the command process and simplify the deployment of air assets.” (VF#186). “The surveillance and command and action should belong to the same structure, in this case, firefighters more knowledgeable and better able to agglomerate all these activities” (VF#158). This is related to the opinion of two respondents advocating independence from Civil Protection, suggesting a “(…) national and district command of firefighters and not being associated with Civil Protection” (VF#19) and thus proposing: “In my opinion, there will be much to change, however in my understanding we should start by separating what should never have been united (because it was the most economical solution at the time), the Fire Brigade is a Civil Protection Agent like all the others and we are not Civil Protection, end with the slogan "we are the backbone of the Civil Protection" - only when it suits someone” (PF#24).

It is noteworthy that in April 2023, the Portuguese Firemen's League (Liga Portuguesa dos Bombeiros) established the National Operational Command of Firemen. This creation, as reported in the provided source (https://lbp.pt/comando-nacional-de-bombeiros-esta-completo), was implemented independently of the existing Civil Protection legislation. The establishment of this command aligns with the expressed desires of the respondents, further indicating the relevance and recognition of their perspectives.

One of the arguments that supports this opinion is brought forth by three respondents who call for less politicization of the Civil Protection system, accusing ANEPC (Autoridade Nacional de Emergência e Proteção Civil in Portuguese; National Authority for Emergency and Civil Protection in English) of being highly politicized and influenced by ruling parties. It is suggested that “(…) the command positions of the ANEPC structure should no longer be influenced by the governing political party” (PF#127).

The second group of replies is related to a transversal need to simplify and make more efficient the complex and cumbersome system of defense against rural fires, firstly by reducing the number of entities involved in it, which can include more than 50 bodies [21]. One proposal included “Restructuring the firefighting system, reducing the number of intervening entities and investing in the structures that have always existed for this purpose, professionalizing and giving the proper conditions for the performance of the mission” (PF#134). Thus, an organization passes through the rearranging of the components in a single national service, with the aim of producing a less complex and more harmonized system, without overlapping the functions of different forces. “The entire Civil Protection structure should undergo a more effective reorganization and legislate for all fire services to have equal means and equipment, all modern and effective” (VF#179).

In this process, the concept of territorial zones, with respective commands, reappears: “Fire brigades with their own command and activation of the old operational areas with their respective commands” (VF#183).

Unification and harmonization of language and procedures are also felt as a pressing need, together with valorizing the experience of commanders on the ground and introducing knowledge tests for career access, as: “(…) we will all have to speak the same language, because the Civil Protection System cannot be led by elements without knowledge of cause; a wildfire theatre of operations has nothing to do with a military theatre of operations, nor with the political environment, why do we continue to appoint elements with military careers and political party connections to these positions? Why is it that to firemen, the most numerous forces in the national territory, the specialization training is provided for free to the Special Civil Protection Force and not to the Volunteer Firemen? Why is it that the entrance to a Permanent Intervention Team is only through physical tests, with no knowledge tests? If we implement these changes, I think we are on the right track” (VF#23).

As for the command of operations, there is a need to trust a person with experience on the ground rather than rankings, well knowledgeable of both the territory and of the activity of firefighting on the ground. Three respondents asked for enhancing the autonomy of expert operators in the theatre of operations because they “(…) know the terrain” (VF#160).

Experience of commanders is also under scrutiny: “Many changes must be implemented, from the training of an element that moves to the active corps, to the Command of Operations. Sometimes commanders have never experienced a wildfire and come with the command of a reinforcement group” (PF#168).

To enhance the effectiveness of the system, some respondents propose that surveillance, command, and action should belong to the same structure; in this case, firefighters would be more knowledgeable and better able to agglomerate these activities. There should be a single organized command within the firefighters’ structure, with greater rigor, discipline, and knowledge. In addition, ANEPC “(…) should be more attentive to the lived experience” (PF#127).

The third group of suggestions is related to the collaboration within institutions (4 instances) and the necessity to lower bureaucratic hurdles and simplify procedures (2 instances). Replies underline the necessity of consultation, interaction, and collaboration at different scales and levels, including population. The responses mentioned the need for “Greater consultation with the operatives, as part of the solution” (VF#50), “(...) real collaboration between the different means of Civil Protection” (VF#36).

Engaging in consultations can effectively mitigate overlapping of activities and conflicts arising from a lack of competence, which can lead to unproductive episodes of miscoordination and even defiant attitudes, such as non-compliance with instructions from the official chain of command and control. By fostering a culture of consultation, organizations can promote effective communication, collaboration, and alignment, ultimately enhancing coordination and minimizing potential conflicts.

One of the respondents offers a detailed complaint of such situations: “In my opinion, the different agents should dedicate themselves only to do what they were created to do: it is not normal in an operative theatre, not getting elements of GNR (Guarda National Republicana; National Guard in English) to control access to the accident area, or to create evacuation corridors, and in the same place have members of this force trying to do the work of firefighters completely uncoordinated and without accepting the orders from the PCO (Posto de Comando Operacional, Operational Command Post), it is a question of doing more and more effectively” (VF#172).

• Communication in the operational theatre

Communication issues are mentioned only by 3 respondents who identify the need for more communication by field operators and an overall more effective communication system: “An effective and safe communication system, safety and operational conditions for the operatives involved in the operational theatres” (VF#20).

• Firefighters’ career and work conditions

In this item two main aspects were highlighted: Career dignification and remuneration were mentioned by 7 firefighters, and Better working conditions were identified by 1 PF. Advocating for decent career prospects and improving working conditions are essential, as they contribute to creating a motivated team. It is understood that better remuneration “ (…) and an adequate specific career” (VF#81), play a significant role in boosting motivation levels “(…) since firefighters provide a public service of great complexity. If they are more and better remunerated it could be possible to demand them to do more and better” (VF#81).

Four VF mentioned the following key factors as crucial to addressing in the discussion on career dignification and remuneration: Better working conditions, Improved career prospects, Enhanced remuneration, and a Heightened sense of dignity and moral recognition for individuals engaged in the risky task of saving lives, protecting assets, and rescuing people. This is particularly significant for volunteer firefighters who represent a cost-effective yet undervalued resource. Supporting and investing in firefighters is a reinforcing step: “Ensure that volunteer firefighters are paid more at the time of the forest fire fighting with DECIF, (Dispositivo Especial de Combate a Incêndios Florestais in Portugais; Special Device for Fighting Forest Fires in English)” (VF#162).

There is a strong advocacy for the establishment of decent careers for firefighters, achieved through investments in a unified firefighting force. The emphasis is on providing better working conditions, professional development opportunities, and improved remuneration to attract and retain highly skilled firefighters “ (…) instead of creating structures on top of structures that, by themselves and without the support of the Firefighters, solve nothing (where they exist, because in the overwhelming majority of municipalities they do not even exist)” (PF#139).

Better working conditions are related to the need for better equipment and increased remuneration: ”Fundamentally, the prevention mechanisms must be better equipped and properly remunerated so that the elements can be motivated and available. It is also important to guarantee human and physical means in a credible and realistic way. Not only guaranteed on paper” (VF#148).

To further enhance the discussion, it is imperative to conduct a thorough review of working conditions. Specifically, implementing short-term working rotations for front-line personnel and establishing different specialties based on a gradient of risk levels. These measures aim to ensure optimal operational efficiency and safety. By implementing short-term rotations and aligning specialties with varying risk levels, the objective is to promote a well-balanced and secure working environment, as firefighters call for “(…_) better conditions for all voluntary firemen who have their own jobs and who, despite all the legislation produced so far, continue to be undermined” (VF#5).

3.3.2. Preparation

In the topic of preparation, there are two main items: Firefighters’ preparation mentioned by 34 firefighters (11 PF and 23 VF) and Citizens’ preparation mentioned by 5 respondents (2 PF and 3 VF).

• Firefighters’ preparation

Four sub-items were considered namely Specialization (12 instances which 12 from VF), More and rigorous formation and updated training models (10 instances, of which 7 from VF), Professionalization of firefighters (8 instances, 4 from PF and 4 from VF), and Knowledge about fire dynamics (4 instances of which 3 from VF).

Special attention is given to specialization in various tasks and activities. For instance, “Rotation in the work periods of all combatants. The mission of the combatants of the initial and extended attack should not be the same as that of the ones who do the aftermath and surveillance. There should be teams specialized in aftermath and surveillance, freeing up combat operatives for other interventions and thus recovering their capacity” (PF#153). In addition, it was suggested that firefighters’ headquarters should have the support of health professionals. Respondents noted that “Using health professionals in the fire service can help the population and would provide great improvements in the firefighting force” (VF#51). For instance, in case of evacuation, accidents, or fatalities, the presence of psychological support experts would be essential in diminishing posttraumatic stress.

There is a recognition of the need to professionalize firefighters. Some respondents suggest achieving a certain level of professionalization among firefighters ("Sufficient professional firefighters in each volunteer firefighters’ associations" - VF#64), while also acknowledging the importance of maintaining volunteer participation. A respondent provided the following comment: “In general, volunteer firefighters should evolve into professionals. In addition to the ECIN's ((ECIN- Equipa de Combate a Incêndios, in Portuguese; Firefighting team in English), the associations should have teams (EIP- Equipas de Intervenção Permanente in Portuguese, Permanent Intervention Teams) working 24h, preferably more than one team and complemented in the same with the association's employees and giving continuity to the volunteering maintaining those same teams of volunteers. We are approaching the subject in relation to the rescue of the Portuguese population and I still don't understand how this rescue continues to be assured mainly by voluntary elements, since there are still corporations that don't have enough teams to maintain the rescue without recourse to volunteers. I'm not saying that we should put an end to volunteering, but that we should change the percentage between professional and voluntary elements. A higher percentage of professionals and a lower percentage of volunteers. Volunteering is always important and an added value for everyone” (VF#142). “The professionalization of firefighters with a more balanced remuneration of the operatives (risk allowance) is the key for a job with more responsibility and commitment, also allowing for a more adequate response from the operatives. “(VF#81). Demand for professionalization in the sector, with a greater presence of professional firefighters and fewer volunteers, was expressed as a clear and urgent requirement. It is deemed “unacceptable that the safety and rescue of the Portuguese population largely depend on voluntary contributions” (VF#142).

However, some respondents strongly recommended complete professionalization to effectively address the current challenges. They emphasized the need for a Civil Protection system primarily composed of professional personnel, highlighting the limitations of the current reliance on volunteers and inexpensive labor. Professionalization is seen as “(…) the key to the continuity of a work with more responsibility and commitment. because you can demand more appropriate response from the operatives. and consequently, starts to exist a more balanced level of remuneration of operatives" (VF#,81).

Considering that wildfire are increasingly complex socio-ecological phenomena, provide firefighters with more scientific knowledge on fire dynamics, including extreme wildfires, is of paramount importance. A respondent claim for “(…) more dynamic information, awareness and education on risk” (VF#31).

To form a firefighting force highly skilled it is crucial to go beyond the mandatory investments in material and human resources. Formation, and training, are deemed essential steps in firefighting. It is crucial to move away from a philosophy where everyone is expected to be proficient in all aspects.

• Citizens’ preparation

It was also suggested by 1PF and 2 VF, to establish and spread a culture of training within the population, starting from an early age: ”(…) working in depth on prevention, focusing on a culture of training in the population from school age onward” (PF#79). It is considered a highly efficient and impactful approach to promote and develop not only prevention but preparedness measures, as well.

3.3.3. Material and Human Resources

This topic revolved around four key elements: Human resources (17 instances), Equipment and vehicles (10 instances), Support and investment in firefighters (6 instances), and Change in the financing model (mentioned once). The frequency of these mentions reflects the significance attributed to the suppression paradigm. Strengthening this paradigm is a necessary and logical step, enabling a more effective response to Extreme Weather Events (EWEs), which have been devastating the country with unprecedented violence. The responses, categorized according to these elements, provide valuable insights and illumination on the topic.

• Human Resources

For 17 respondents increase the human resources is a pressing concern, without providing additional explanations. It likely stems from a decline in staffing levels over the past decade, which has reached approximately 33% [22]. Factors contributing to this reduction include an aging workforce, depopulation, and a lack of interest among younger generations who are not drawn to the demanding working conditions and limited benefits associated with volunteer firefighting, including low remuneration.

• Supporting and investing in firefighters

Some respondents highlight the need for increased investment in the firefighting workforce, as it is seen as a resource that is, “(…) practically free for the state” (VF#158).

• Equipment and vehicles

More equipment and vehicles are considered crucial to strengthening operational capacities and for ensuring equitable treatment in comparison to other emergency response forces. “The entire Civil Protection structure should undergo a more effective reorganization and legislate for all fire brigades to be equipped with the same modern and effective means and equipment” (VF#179) and to obtain “(…) at least equal treatment with other forces” (VF#48). Beyond vehicles, the respondents mentioned the need for increased investment in PPE (Personal Protective Equipment), and “(…) more computer equipment (tablets) and training in this area for all firefighters and not just commanders” (PF#39).

• Change the financing model

One of the respondents suggests changing the financing model (PF#184) but does not provide specific suggestions on how to implement this change.

3.3.4. Proactive Initiatives and Actions

In this topic two items were recognized: Spatial planning of the territory and forests (5 instances, all from VF) and Prevention (9 instances, 4 from PF and 5 from VF).

• Spatial planning of the territory and forests

Some replies on the topic of territory and forest planning exhibit a tendency towards oversimplification, as they lack depth and fail to address the complexities involved. Respondents mentioned “Investing more in advance land-use planning” (VF#41) and that “There should be more supervision in the cleaning of bushes and around dwellings” (VF#159). Once again, there is a tendency to offer simplistic and inadequately analyzed suggestions, such as the idea of keeping the forest and surrounding areas "clean," as if it alone could effectively mitigate the threat of extreme events. The complexities associated with reducing the hazardous accumulation of fuels are not adequately addressed or acknowledged in these responses [23].

• Prevention

The replies demonstrate a lack of knowledge about prevention strategies and the necessary resources for building a robust Civil Protection service capable of addressing the growing threat of extreme fires. There is a need for more comprehensive information and allocation of resources to prioritize prevention measures.

Surprisingly, prevention efforts, particularly those aimed at proactively avoiding catastrophic events that exceed the suppression threshold, appear to be lacking in the responses. Prevention is often portrayed merely as a suggestion to maintain “clean” forest and surroundings, which reflects a limited understanding of the concepts of fire-smart communities and territories [24,25,26]. This observation raises concerns about the level of knowledge and awareness regarding comprehensive prevention strategies within the firefighting community, despite statements such as “Give preference to the prevention of fires and not to fighting”(PF#170) and “(…) empowering Civil Protection agents according to risk analysis. Urgent to work on the organization of the territory. More means of prevention” (VF#43). It is essential to recognize the multifaceted nature of fuel management and develop comprehensive strategies that consider the ecological, social, and economic aspects of wildfire prevention and mitigation.

3.3.5. Strategies and Tactics

• Personal, teams’, and citizens’ safety

Safety is predominantly viewed in terms of equipment, rather than individual awareness of safety behavior. It is notable that this perspective received a surprisingly low number of responses, indicating a potential gap in addressing the importance of personal safety awareness and behavior. “It makes no sense the continuous neglect of personal protective equipment and combat equipment allocated to firefighters” (VF#158).

Furthermore, there is a concerning lack of depth when addressing the critical issue of evacuating people. The responses often overlook the complexity, social costs, and challenges associated with relocating a population or specific groups from their habitual living areas. Evacuations entail significant challenges, such as dealing with resistance, potential conflicts, and the psychological stress experienced by wildfire victims. Failing to acknowledge these complexities can undermine the effectiveness of evacuation plans and strategies. It is crucial to approach the topic of evacuation with the necessary depth and understanding to ensure the safety and well-being of affected populations [27,28,29], contrary to what was stated by a respondent : “I don't think that the Civil Protection system needs many changes, but I would propose a faster and more efficient way of safely removing civilians from villages” (VF#136).

• Changes in strategies and tactics

Aerial resources were only mentioned by two respondents: “The management of the aerial means should be totally military with own means, e.g., air force” (VF#P8). In Portugal, the firefighting system prioritizes firefighters as the primary backbone, considering their crucial role in combating fires, and ensuring public safety, while aircraft and vehicles play supportive roles [22].

3.3.6. Word Clouds

Here following we present the graphs depicting the word cloud and the frequency of the most used words, namely Command, Fire, Firefighters, and Brigade (Figure 2). The significant representation of these terms highlights the importance placed on fire suppression. Moreover, attention is given to the protection and training of firefighting teams. The use of the term "better," although not contextualized, suggests a broader need for improvements across various domains and at a large scale. It indicates a demand for enhancements and advancements in different areas related to firefighting and fire management.

Figure 2. Improvement suggestions. Word frequency analysis with the word cloud method and bar graph.

Figure 2. Improvement suggestions. Word frequency analysis with the word cloud method and bar graph.

4. Overall Discussion

5. Conclusions

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