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Emerging Pollutants in Uganda: A Systematic Review

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05 September 2023

Posted:

07 September 2023

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Abstract
Emerging pollutants pose significant threats to Uganda's ecosystems and public health amidst rapid urbanization, industrial growth, and intensified agriculture. This systematic review comprehensively assessed these pollutants by analyzing existing Ugandan literature and research studies, revealing various types in different environmental compartments. These pollutants, including pharmaceuticals, personal care products, pesticides, industrial chemicals, heavy metals, radionuclides, biotoxins, disinfection byproducts, hydrocarbons, and microplastics, originate from urban, industrial, and agricultural regions. Wastewater and improper waste disposal are major contributors. From an initial search of 794 articles across multiple databases such as PubMed, African Journal Online (AJOL), Web of Science, Science Direct, and Google Scholar, 138 were found relevant. The review underscores potential ecological and health impacts, including antibiotic resistance, endocrine disruption, and carcinogenicity. Existing monitoring and regulation efforts are discussed, alongside the need for specific regulations, improved data collection, and public awareness campaigns. Recommendations include advanced wastewater treatment, sustainable agriculture, and source control measures. Emphasis is placed on further research to address knowledge gaps and develop effective policies and interventions. Uganda can mitigate these risks by implementing comprehensive monitoring, robust regulations, and sustainable practices, safeguarding the environment and public health.
Keywords: 
Subject: Environmental and Earth Sciences  -   Pollution

1. Introduction

Environmental pollution, with its multifaceted dimensions, is a growing concern worldwide, with developing countries often facing the brunt of its consequences (1–4). This has escalated due to the rapid industrialization, urbanization, and modernization processes taking place across the world (1,2). These activities have led to the release of a diverse array of pollutants into various environmental compartments, giving rise to the concept of "emerging pollutants” (5). These pollutants, often originating from new technologies, industrial processes, and urban activities, have the potential to pose significant ecological and human health risks (6,7). Understanding their presence, distribution, and potential impacts is crucial for sustainable environmental management and public health protection.
Unlike regulated pollutants, “emerging pollutants” are substances that are not currently subject to specific regulations or monitoring requirements but have the potential to adversely affect the environment and human health (8–10). These pollutants, often characterized by their persistence, bioaccumulation, and toxicity, include a diverse range of substances such as industrial byproducts, pharmaceutical residues, pesticides, personal care products, persistent organic pollutants (POPs), flame retardants, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated compounds, mycotoxins, heavy metals, and microplastics (4,11). These substances can enter water bodies, soil, and air through various pathways, such as industrial discharges, agricultural runoff, improper waste disposal, and atmospheric deposition. Once released, they can persist in the environment for long periods, accumulating in organisms and potentially causing adverse effects (4,5,12–14).
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Figure 1. Sources, pathways, and distribution of emerging contaminants in different environmental compartments in Uganda.
Figure 1. Sources, pathways, and distribution of emerging contaminants in different environmental compartments in Uganda.
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Uganda, known for its rich biodiversity and stunning landscapes, faces mounting challenges due to the emergence of “emerging pollutants” that pose significant threats to its ecosystems, public health, and socio-economic development (4,15,16). According to (16) and (17), rapid urbanization, industrial growth, and agricultural intensification have contributed to the release of various pollutants into the environment, triggering concerns about long-term sustainability (16,18,19). The effects of emerging pollutants can be detrimental to both the environment and human health. They have been associated with ecosystem disruption (20), biodiversity loss, hormonal imbalances in wildlife, and reproductive impairments (3,15,21,22). In humans, exposure to these pollutants has been linked to various health issues, including endocrine disruption, developmental abnormalities, neurological disorders, and increased risks of certain cancers (23,24).
While there have been significant efforts to monitor and regulate traditional pollutants such as heavy metals and other organic contaminants, the knowledge about other different types of emerging pollutants and their impact on Ugandan ecosystems and public health is still limited. The persistence and potential adverse effects of emerging pollutants are a matter of concern. Some pollutants, previously identified as "legacy persistent organic pollutants," have been restricted under the Stockholm Convention due to their environmental persistence, wide distribution, bioaccumulation potential, and toxicity to humans and wildlife (25). However, emerging pollutants are characterized by their diverse behavior and sources of production, making their detection and characterization challenging. The identification and quantification of emerging pollutants require sophisticated analytical techniques capable of detecting trace levels of these compounds in environmental matrices. In Uganda, researchers have employed various analytical methods, including liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS), gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), to assess the presence and concentrations of emerging pollutants in different environmental compartments (26). The diverse nature of emerging pollutants necessitates a comprehensive investigation of their occurrence in various matrices. These matrices encompass surface water bodies (lakes, rivers, and wetlands), groundwater, sediments, soils, air, and biota (aquatic and terrestrial organisms). Understanding the distribution and concentrations of emerging pollutants in different environmental compartments is crucial for assessing their potential risks and designing effective management strategies.
To date, several studies have been conducted in Uganda to investigate the presence and concentrations of emerging pollutants in different environmental systems in Uganda for example in water (27,28), sediments (27,29), surface waters (30–32), food crops (33,34), edible insects (35), breastmilk (36) and in fish (30). These studies have identified a range of compounds, including pharmaceutical residues (e.g., antibiotics, analgesics) (26,37,38), personal care products (e.g., fragrances, UV filters) (39), pesticides (e.g., herbicides, insecticides) (27,35,40,41), industrial chemicals (e.g., flame retardants, plasticizers) (36,39,42), microplastics and heavy metals (43–45). The concentrations of emerging pollutants reported in the literature vary depending on the sampling location, environmental matrix, and analytical techniques used. For instance, studies have detected antibiotics in surface waters at concentrations ranging from 1 ng/L to 5600 ng/L, highlighting the potential impact of pharmaceutical pollution on aquatic ecosystems (26,38). Large volumes of pharmaceuticals are produced and consumed annually, but not all medications are properly used or disposed of. This leads to the accumulation of potentially toxic substances in water and soil. However, there is a sparsity of information on the disposal methods and protocols used by healthcare professionals, including community pharmacists, in Uganda (38).The lack of sufficient information and a strong national guideline for medication disposal and poor compliance with existing guidelines increases the risk of environmental contamination and the ingestion of toxic pharmaceutical waste by humans and animals. Similarly, the presence various chemicals, including pesticides (27,46), perfluorinated alkylated substances (PFAS) (47), personal care products (39), and persistent organic pollutants (POPs) (36), has been documented in surface waters, with concentrations exceeding regulatory limits in some cases, indicating potential risks to agricultural productivity and human health (19,38,48). Their contamination poses a significant public health concern as it can be detrimental to freshwater resources, similar to the concerns raised in previous studies (38).
Wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluents have been identified as important sources of contamination in Uganda (37,38,48,49). These WWTPs serve as receptacles for anthropogenic pollution, and due to the lack of specific treatment methods for organic pollutants, some compounds remain poorly degraded (48,50). High levels of PFAS have been observed in wastewaters, surface water, soil and crops (47,48) and the contribution of hospitals and households to pharmaceutical contamination in WWTPs is a concern (26,51). Additionally, urban discharges, including separate or combined sewer overflows, can also impact receiving waters in Uganda, similar to the situation in other regions. In urban areas of Uganda, pollutants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), alkylphenols, and pesticides have been quantified in urban stormwaters (16,37,38,47–49,52). This highlights the presence of various contaminants in stormwater runoff, further contributing to the contamination of surface waters in urban settings. Additionally, Uganda faces challenges related to the importation and management of electronic waste (E-waste). With a desire for modern technology but limited affordability, Uganda becomes a destination for used electrical and electronic equipment from developed countries, resulting in the annual importation of a significant amounts of E-waste (53). The country’s recycling infrastructure for managing E-waste is poor, leading to reliance on informal sectors that employ crude dismantling and artisanal recycling techniques (54–56). As a consequence, the soil, water, and air in Uganda are polluted with substances such as brominated flame retardants, non-dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PBDFs), and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (DL-PCBs) (31,36,39,42,57,58). The crude activities involved in E-waste management, including dumping the waste in agricultural farmlands and water bodies, further exacerbate the environmental pollution in Uganda (53,56).
Beyond the context of Uganda, these compounds have also been identified in various African regions, encompassing approximately 17 percent of countries across the con-tinent. Notably, 59 percent of these occurrences stem from studies originating in South Africa, with contributions of 9 percent each from Tunisia and Nigeria, along with 7 percent from Kenya (24,59–62). Despite the limitations in available research, the documentation of emerging pollutants ex-tends throughout the African landscape, involving sediments, sludge, treated drinking water, surface water, wastewater, groundwater, and solid deposits. The limited knowledge of contaminant sources, pathways, properties, and analytical detection techniques hinders the systematic inclusion of emerging pollutants in groundwater monitoring and protection policies. Improper disposal practices further exacerbate the emerging pollutant issue in Uganda (23,50,55). Expired medications and electronic waste pose additional risks to the environment and human health (54,55). Indiscriminate disposal of pharmaceutical waste and inadequate protocols for drug disposal contribute to the potential contamination of water and soil. Improper recycling and open burning of electronic waste introduce substances such as brominated flame retardants, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and dioxins into the environment, polluting soil, water, and air (31,63).
The review aimed to provide a comprehensive understanding of the status, sources, and impacts of emerging pollutants in Uganda, offering valuable insights for policymakers, researchers, and stakeholders. It is hoped that the findings of this review will guide the development of evidence-based interventions and foster sustainable practices that protect Uganda’s natural resources and promote a healthier environment for future generations.

2. Methodology

2.1. Study Design

This systematic review followed a comprehensive and structured approach to assess the state of emerging pollutants in Uganda. The review was guided by the established methodologies for systematic reviews, including a systematic search strategy, data extraction, and quality assessment of selected studies.

2.2. Search Strategy

A systematic search of relevant literature was conducted to identify studies on emerging pollutants in Uganda. Multiple electronic databases, such as PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar, were searched using appropriate keywords and Boolean operators. The search terms included combinations of "emerging pollutants," "contaminants of emerging concern," "Uganda," and related terms. The search was limited to studies published in English up until the cutoff date of this review (September 2023).

2.3. Study Selection

The inclusion and exclusion criteria were predefined to ensure the selection of studies relevant to the topic. Studies that focused on the identification, characterization, and assessment of emerging pollutants in Uganda were included. Both peer-reviewed articles and grey literature, such as reports and conference proceedings, were considered. Studies that did not specifically address emerging pollutants in Uganda or lacked sufficient data were excluded.

2.4. Data Extraction

Data were extracted from the selected studies using a standardized data extraction form. The information collected included study characteristics (e.g., authors, year of publication), study design, sampling methods, analytical techniques, types of emerging pollutants investigated, pollutant sources and concentrations, and any reported impacts or observations. The extracted data were organized systematically for further analysis and synthesis.

2.5. Quality Assessment

The quality and reliability of the selected studies were assessed to ensure the inclusion of robust and valid data. Quality assessment criteria were developed based on established guidelines for systematic reviews. The criteria included study design, sample representativeness, data collection methods, analytical techniques, and reporting clarity. Each study was independently evaluated by two reviewers, and any discrepancies were resolved through discussion and consensus.

2.6. Data Analysis and Synthesis

The extracted data were analyzed and synthesized to provide a comprehensive overview of the state of emerging pollutants in Uganda. The data were summarized descriptively, highlighting key findings regarding the nature, sources, distribution, and potential impacts of the identified pollutants. Where applicable, quantitative data were synthesized using appropriate statistical methods. The results were presented in tables, figures, and narrative summaries.

2.7. Limitations

It is important to acknowledge the potential limitations of this systematic review. The inclusion of only English-language studies may introduce language bias. Moreover, the review is limited to the available literature up until September 2023, and newer studies may not be included. Additionally, variations in study methodologies and data reporting across different studies may pose challenges in data synthesis and comparison. In addition, as this study is a systematic review based on existing literature, no ethical approval was required. However, all selected studies were conducted in accordance with ethical guidelines and obtained appropriate ethical clearance if applicable.

3. Results

The PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) flowchart (64) was used to guide the study selection process and provide a transparent overview of the search and screening process (Figure.2). A total of 794 articles were identified through the initial search from various electronic databases. After removing duplicates, 786 articles remained. The titles and abstracts of these articles were screened for relevance, resulting in the exclusion of 113 articles that did not meet the inclusion criteria. After the exclusion of irrelevant articles, the remaining 673 articles were sought for retrieval and 342 articles were not retrieved. The full texts of the remaining 331 articles were then assessed for eligibility. Following a careful evaluation, an additional 193 articles were excluded due to inadequate data or irrelevance, leaving 138 studies for inclusion in the systematic review. The characteristics of the included studies are summarized in (Table 2), which provides details such as author names, publication year, classes of pollutants investigated, their areas of detection, their sources and concentrations in different environmental systems. The selected studies encompassed a wide range of research approaches, including laboratory analyses, field studies, and monitoring programs.
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Figure 2. PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) flow diagram for the literature survey.
Figure 2. PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) flow diagram for the literature survey.
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Figure 3. Major groups of emerging pollutants in Uganda.
Figure 3. Major groups of emerging pollutants in Uganda.
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Table 1. Major groups of emerging pollutants, their description and componentsdetected in uganda.
Table 1. Major groups of emerging pollutants, their description and componentsdetected in uganda.
Category of pollutant Description Components
Pharmaceuticals Medicinal compounds, including prescription and over-the-counter drugs, that enter the environment through human excretion and wastewater. Antibiotics, Analgesics, Hormones, Antidepressants, Beta-Blockers, Diuretics, Antihypertensive, Fibrate, and Antiparasitic
Pesticides Chemical substances used to control pests in agriculture, which can leach into soil and water, impacting non-target organisms. Insecticides, Herbicides, Fungicides, and Rodenticides
Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) Organic compounds that resist degradation, such as certain pesticides and industrial chemicals, with potential long-range transport effects. Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs), Dioxins, Furans, among others
Personal Care Products Chemicals found in cosmetics, shampoos, soaps, and perfumes that can be washed into water bodies and contribute to water pollution. Fragrances, UV Filters, Preservatives, and Surfactants
Heavy metals Metallic elements like lead, mercury, cadmium, and chromium that can accumulate in the environment and pose health risks to living organisms. Lead (Pb), Mercury (Hg), Cadmium (Cd), Chromium (Cr), Nickle (Ni) among others
Hydrocarbon Compounds Organic compounds derived from petroleum, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which are often associated with oil spills. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs), and Benzene
Biotoxins - Mycotoxins Toxins produced by organisms like fungi (mycotoxins) and harmful algae, which can contaminate water and food sources, posing health risks. Aflatoxins, Ochratoxins, and Fusarium Toxins
Radionuclides and Electromagnetic radiations Radioactive elements and non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation that can impact human health and the environment. Uranium (U), Thorium (Th), 40-K and Radon (Rn), Radiofrequency (RF), Microwaves, Electromagnetic Fields,
Other emerging pollutants of concern Various emerging contaminants, like flame retardants and nanomaterials, whose impacts on the environment and health are under investigation. Flame Retardants, Nanomaterials, and Emerging Contaminants
Microplastics Tiny plastic particles resulting from the breakdown of larger plastic waste, which can be ingested by organisms and enter the food chain. Microplastic particles, and Microfibers,
Disinfection byproducts Chemical compounds formed when disinfectants like chlorine react with organic matter in water, potentially leading to health risks. Trihalomethanes (THMs)
Particulates Tiny solid particles or liquid droplets suspended in the air, which can have adverse health effects when inhaled by humans and animals. PM2.5 (Fine Particulate Matter), PM10 (Coarse Particulate Matter), Gases, Sulphur dioxide (SO 2), Ozone (O3) and Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
Table 2. Categories, classes and the detected concentrations of emerging pollutants in Uganda.
Table 2. Categories, classes and the detected concentrations of emerging pollutants in Uganda.
Category of Group/Class Name Uses Sources Concentrations Place of study References
pollutant detected
Pharmaceuticals Antibiotics Sulfamethoxazole Pharmaceutical Industrial and municipal wastewater from Kampala city via Nakivubo channel, and Bugolobi Wastewater effluents 1 - 5600 ngL-1 Murchison Bay on L. Victoria and Bugolobi wastewater treatment plant, Kampala, Uganda
Trimethoprim Pharmaceutical 1300 – 22,600 ngL-1
Sulfamethazine Pharmaceutical 2.4 - 50 ngL-1
Sulfacetamide Pharmaceutical 0.8 - 13 ngL-1
Tetracycline Pharmaceutical 3 - 70 ngL-1
Erythromycin Pharmaceutical 10 - 66 ngL-1
Carbamazepine Pharmaceutical 5 - 72 ngL-1
Oxytetracyline Pharmaceutical 17 - 300 ngL-1
Tetracyline Pharmaceutical 2.7 - 70 ngL-1
Erythromycin Pharmaceutical 10 - 66 ngL-1 (26,37,38)
Azithromycin Pharmaceutical 14 - 60 ngL-1
Ciprofloxacin Pharmaceutical 2.0 - 41 ngL-1
Levofloxacin Pharmaceutical 1.8 - 29 ngL-1
Norfloxacin Pharmaceutical 1.9 - 26 ngL-1
Enoxacin Pharmaceutical 5.9 - 51 ngL-1
Ampicillin Pharmaceutical Wastewater effluents as well as shallow groundwater, leachates and run-offs 1350 ngL-1 Bwaise (38,65,66)
Chlortetracycline Pharmaceutical 394 ngL-1 Wobulenzi city suburbs, Kampala, Uganda
Ciprofloxacin Pharmaceutical 340 ngL-1
Enrofloxacin Pharmaceutical 17 ngL-1
Metacycline Pharmaceutical 17 ngL-1
Nalidixic acid Pharmaceutical 2,340 ngL-1
Oxytetracycline Pharmaceutical 17 ngL-1
Penicillin G (benzylpenicillin) Pharmaceutical 800 ngL-1
Sulfathiazole Pharmaceutical 140 ngL-1
Tetracycline Pharmaceutical 47.3 ngL-1
Analgesic/Anti-inflammatory Ibuprofen Pharmaceutical Industrial and municipal runoffs and Wastewater effluents 5.9 -780 ngL-1 Nakivubo sewer channel, Murchison Bay on L. Victoria and Bugolobi wastewater treatment plant, Uganda (26,37)
Diclofenac Pharmaceutical 100 – 500 ngL-1
Acetaminophen Pharmaceutical 1.6 – 27 ng/L
Antiepileptics/antidepressant Carbamazepine Pharmaceutical 200 – 1300 ngL-1
346.496 µgL-1 CEC
Beta-Blockers Atenolol Pharmaceutical 24-380 ngL-1
Metoprolol Pharmaceutical 0.4-21 ngL-1
Diuretics Furosemide Pharmaceutical 160 – 1300 ngL-1
Hydrochlorothiazide Pharmaceutical 230 – 1350 ngL-1
Antihypertensive Losartan Pharmaceutical 100 – 160 ngL-1
Fibrate Gemfibrozil Pharmaceutical 190 – 800 ngL-1
Antiparasitic Pyrimethamine Pharmaceutical 8.4 – 14.0 ngL-1
Pesticides Organonitrogen Endosulfan sulfate Herbicide, insecticides and fungicides Air, sediment and surface water samples 0.82–5.62 µg kg-1 d.w. 4 bays of the Uganda side of L. Victoria, Uganda (19,27,70,30,35,41,46,49,67–69)
Aldrin Herbicide, insecticide 0.22 – 15.96 µg kg-1 d.w.
Dieldrin Soil insecticide and for control 0.94 – 7.18 µg kg-1 d.w.
of mosquitoes.
Chlordane Insecticide 3.82 – 35.6 pgm-3
Hexachlorocyclohexanes Insecticide 3.72 – 81.8 pgm--3
Heptachlor Insecticide 0.81 μgkg-1 d.w.
Heptachlor epoxide Insecticide. Used for fire ant 3.19 μgkg-1 d.w.
control in power transformers
Organochlorine p, p′-DDE Insecticides 0.11 – 3.59 μgkg-1 d.w.
p, p′-DDD 0.38 – 4.02 μgkg-1 d.w.
p, p′-DDT 0.04 – 1.46 μgkg-1 d.w.
o, p′-DDE 0.07 – 2.72 μgkg-1 d.w.
o, p′-DDT 0.01 – 1.63 μgkg-1 d.w.
Total Endosulfan Isomer of Endosulfan. 12.3 – 282 pg m−3 Air and water samples of Lake Victoria Northern shore water shed, areas of Kakira and Entebbe, Uganda (27,41,46,65,67,68,71–74)
Insecticide and acaricide
Total DDT related compounds Insecticide used in agriculture 22.8 – 130 pgm--3
Dieldrin Soil insecticide and for control of mosquitoes 0.0148 ± 0.0023 μgkg-1 d.w.
Endosulphan sulphate Insecticide and acaricide 0.82 – 5.62 μgkg-1 d.w.
Lindane Insecticide 0.74 ± 0.11 and 0.87 ± 0.09 μg kg−1 Napoleon Gulf on L. Victoria, Uganda
(MRL = 0.5 mg kg−1)
Aldrin 1.17 and 1.79 μg kg−1 (MRL = 0.1 mg kg−1)
α-Endosulfan 7.59 and 6.00 μg kg−1
(MRL = 0.1 mg kg−1) (30,46,68,75)
Dieldrin 2.22 and 1.88 μg kg−1 (MRL = 0.1 mg kg−1)
Organochlorine p, p′-1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis-(4-chlorophenyl) ethylene (p, p′-DDE) Insecticide Air, Sediments, Surface waters samples as well as Fish species 6.10 and 3.44 μg kg−1 Napoleon Gulf on L. Victoria, Uganda (27,41,73)
p, p′-1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis-(4-chlorophenyl) ethane (p, p′-DDT) 7.34 and 4.30 μg kg−1
(MRL = 0.1 mg kg−1)
∑DDTs 503.6 μg kg−1 d.w. Abandoned pesticide store in Masindi district in western Uganda -74
∑OCPs 14.4 μg kg−1 d.w.
Lindane 11.4 μg kg−1 d.w.
Endosulfans 1.55 μg kg−1 d.w.
Chlorpyrifos 93.5 ng/m3 Air samples from Kakira and Entebbe, northern shore of L. Victoria, Uganda (67,74,76)
Chlorthalonil Fungicide < 0.10–24.0 pg m− 3
Metribuzin Herbicides < 0.02– 0.53 ng m−3
Trifluralin 0.02–0.32 pg m− 3
Malathion Insecticide < 0.08–193 pg m− 3
p, p’DDE 125 mg/kg Kampala and Iganga districts in Uganda (40,77)
Dieldrin 123 mg/kg
p, p’DDD 24 mg/kg
p, p, DDT 13 mg/kg
o, p’DDT 23 mg/kg
α-HCH 54 mg/kg
β-HCH 10 mg/kg
Lindane 7 mg/kg
Carbofuran 83.3 pg/m3
Kakira and Entebbe, northern shore of L. Victoria, Uganda
-68
Total Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (ΣDDTs) 22.8 – 130 pg/m3
Total hexachlorocyclohexanes (ΣHCHs) 3.72 – 81.8 pg/m3
Carbamates Total Endosulfan (ΣEndo) 12.3 – 282 pg/m3
Persistent organic pollutants (POP) polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) Are used as coolants and lubricants in transformers, capacitors, and other electrical equipment Sediment samples 9.84 pg g−1 dry weight Napoleon Gulf and Thurston Bay on northern shore of L. Victoria, Uganda -42
Dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) 136 pg g−1 dw (36,42,57,78)
polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins/furans (PCDD/Fs) 44.1 pg g−1 dw (36,57,78)
Flame Retardants (brominated flame retardants (BFRs)) 0.07–5.53 pg Toxic Equivalent Factors (TEQ) g−1 dw
polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) 0.07 - 5.61 pg g−1 dw (36,57,78)
0.01–0.23 pg TEQ g−1 dw
Organochlorine pesticides Pymetrozine Pesticide Edible Insects 0.02 pg g−1 dw Ugandan districts -35
Methabenzthiazuron 0.08 pg g−1 dw
Metazachlor 1.4 ± 0.03 pg g−1 dw
Fenimorph 0.04 ± 0.03 pg g−1 dw
Fludioxonil Fungicide 0.29 pg g−1 dw
Metalaxyl 0.01± 0.01 pg g−1 dw
Organophosphorus flame retardants (OPFRs) Tricresyl phosphate Used as a plasticizer Waters, sediments and soil samples 25 – 8100 ngL-1 Napoleon gulf, Murchison, Waiya, Entebbe, and Thurston bays, Uganda (27,39,40,46,67,69,72–74)
Tris-(2-chloroethyl) phosphate Widely used as a plasticizer, fire retardant and solvent 24 – 6500 ngL-1
Triphenyl phosphate 54 – 4300 ngL-1
Tris-(2-ethylexyl) phosphate 4300 ngL-1
2-ethylhexyl diphenyl phosphate 7.7 - 730 ngL-1
Tricresyl phosphate 8100 ngL-1
Tris-(2-chloroisopropyl) phosphate Used as plasticizers and antifoam agents 25 - 600 ngL-1
Tributyl phosphate 29 ngL-1
Triethyl phosphate 9.6 - 500 ngL-1
Phthalate ester plasticizers (PEP) Dibutyl phthalate Are added to polymers to ease processing and to Waters, sediments and soil samples 350 – 16000 ngL-1 Napoleon gulf, Murchison, Waiya, Entebbe, and Thurston bays, Uganda -39
Bis-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate enhance flexibility and toughness of the final product 210 – 23000 ngL-1
Dimethyl phthalate 6.8 – 400 ngL-1
Diethyl phthalate 38 – 1100 ngL-1
Dibutyl phthalate 350 - 16000 ngL-1
N-butyl benzenesulfonamide 7.5 200 ngL-1
Bis-(2-ethylhexyl) adipate 12 - 6100 ngL-1
Personal Care Products Antimicrobial Triclosan Antibiotic in soaps, toothpaste, detergents Industrial wastewater effluents from highly industrialized localities of the two bays 89 – 1400 ngL-1 Napoleon gulf, Murchison, Waiya, Entebbe, and Thurston bays, Uganda -39
Organic sunscreens Benzophenone Protect the products from UV light 36 – 1300 ngL-1
4-methylbenzylidine camphor Organic UV filters 21 – 1500 ngL-1
Phenolic antioxidants Butylated hydroxytoluene Used as an antioxidant in cosmetic product formulations 14 – 750 ngL-1
Synthetic musk fragrances Musk ketone Used in cleaning and washing agents, surface treatments, and lubricants and additives 7.3 - 460 ngL-1
Preservatives Chlorophene Used to be applied as a preservative and disinfectant in personal care products 21 - 310 ngL-1
Masking agent Acetophenone Covers the unpleasant scents of other ingredients 2.2 – 100 ngL-1
3-methylindole I used as a flavoring ingredient 1.8 - 130 ngL-1
Insect repellents N, N-diethyltoluamide Is an active ingredient in many insect repellent products 3.9 - 98 ngL-1
Preservatives 3-tert-butyl-4-hydroxy anisole Is used as an antioxidant and preservative 7.3 – 100 ngL-1
Antioxidant 2,6-di-tert-butylphenol Is used as stabilizers, free-radical scavengers and antioxidants 66 ngL-1
Heavy metals Post-transition metals Pb Battery assembling, in gasoline Water, sediments, milk and beef products samples 79 - 138.18 mg/kg Nakivubo channelized stream sediments and in Kampala markets, Uganda (28,30,85–90,43,44,79–84)
Transition metals Cd Find applications in batteries, alloys, coatings (electroplating), solar cells, plastic stabilizers, and pigments Water, sediments, Road side soils, surface films and selected vegetable weeds 0.84 - 1.04 mg/kg
Transition metals Cu Find applications in electrical wiring, roofing, plumbing, and industrial machinery. Sludge at NWSC, Milk, beef, soil, crops, borehole water, Industrial effluents, Herbal medicine, rain water, sediments, roasted peanuts, water sediments, dumpsites 28.84 - 38.01 mg/kg Nakivubo stream, Southwestern Uganda, Kilembe copper mines, Jinja steel rollings and Osukuru phosphate mines, Kampala markets, L. Victoria (28,29,91–98,32,43,79,80,84,88–90)
Trace element Zn Smelting and galvanization Road side soils, surface films and selected vegetable weeds 177.89 - 442.40 mg/kg Kampala city roads, Uganda (43,79,85,97,98)
Transition metals Mn Welding, making structural alloys Cereal crops, 363.47 mg/kg Kampala city, Uganda (29,44,49,70)
Transition metal Fe Making alloy steels Open wells, soils, borehole waters, stream sediments and crops. 30085.33 - 5835.00 mg/kg Nakivubo stream, Kilembe copper mines, southwestern Uganda areas (29,81,82,91,95,99)
Transition metal Ni Use in alloying such as in armour plating Soils, surface water, herbal medicines and cereals 2.2 – 9.40 ppm Jinja steel rolling mills, areas of southwestern Uganda and Kampala markets (89,94,95)
Metalloid As Used as an allowing agent as well as in making of glass, pigments, textiles and both metal and wood adhesives Up and Downstream waters, soil, surface water and plants 0.5 – 4.6 ppm Roofings rolling mills, steel and tube industries in Nakawa Industrial area and in areas of Kilembe copper mines, Uganda (43,81,82,89)
Transition metals Co Making alloys, find applications in magnets and is also used as a catalyst in petroleum industries. Surface waters, vegetables and in herbal medicines 0.233 g/mL R. Nyamwamba areas in kasese, southwestern Uganda parts and soroti district (29,88,94)
Transition metals Hg Find applications in gold extraction and also used in manometers Soils, Cocoyams, roasted peanuts and in stream waters 0.05 ± 0.01 ppm Kampala, Wakiso and Busia districts, Uganda (30,43,99)
Transition metals Cr Applied in manufacture of steel as well as hardening steel Raw bovine milk, herbal medicines, soils, grains and stream waters. 156.9 ppm Steel and Tube industrial area, Roofings rolling mills area, Kampala and Soroti districts, Uganda -28,100
Transition metal Fe Making alloy steels Stream sediments, soils, surface waters and dumpsites, cereal crops, rain water. 64.05 – 147.40 mg/Kg Industrial effluents in Kampala and soroti districts, Nakivubo stream, and Osukuru phosphate mines areas, Uganda (81,82,89)
Hydrocarbon Compounds High and Low molecular Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) Acenaphthene Used to prepare naphthalene Leachates and Ground water samples 1,020 ng/L Bwaise and Wobulenzi towns in Kampala district, Uganda (63,65,101)
dicarboxylic anhydride,
which is a precursor to dyes
Acenaphthylene Used to make electrically 92 ng/L
conductive polymers
Anthracene Used in the manufacture of red dye 340 ng/L
alizarin, wood preservation,
insecticide, coating of
material
Benzo[a]pyrene No known uses 405 ng/L
1.1 ng/L
Benzo[k]fluoranthene Majorly used for research purposes 180 ng/L
226 ng/L
Chrysene Used to make some dyes. 102 ng/L
224 ng/L
Fluoranthene No found uses but is produced 550 ng/L
by some plants. 580 ng/L
Fluorene Used to make dyes, plastics 480 ng/L
and pesticides. 240 ng/L
Naphthalene Industrial solvent 570 ng/L
258 ng/L
Phenanthrene Used to make dyes, plastics 220 ng/L
and pesticides, explosives and 1,050 ng/L
drugs
Pyrene Used to produce dyes, plastics 40 - 687 ng/L
and pesticides.
BTEX compounds Benzene Industrial solvent 86.7 ng/L
Ethylbenzene Industrial solvent 5 - 960 ng/L
Xylene Industrial solvent 410 ng/L
Low and High Molecular Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) Naphthalene Naphthalene Sediments and fish species 184 - 239 ng g-1 dw The White Nile environment near melut oil fields, South Sudan, Uganda and Napoleon Gulf and Murchison Bays ########
Acenaphthylene Used to make electrically 16 - 20.5 ng g-1 dw
conductive polymers
Fluorene Used to make dyes, plastics 148 - 156 ng g-1 dw
and pesticides.
Anthracene Used in the artificial 79.3- 112 ng g-1 dw
manufacture of red dye
alizarin, wood preservation,
insecticide, coating of
material
Fluoranthene No found uses and is said to be produced 2.46 - 8.73 ng g-1 dw
by some plants.
Pyrene Used to produce dyes, plastics 2.09 - 5.7 ng g-1 dw
and pesticides.
Benzo[a]anthracene Can be found in coal tar, roasted coffee, smoked foods, and automobile exhaust and is used in research laboratories 0.5 – 1.3 ng g-1 dw
Chrysene Used to make some dyes. 8.4 - 25 ng g-1 dw
Benzo[b]fluoranthene Research purpose 2.7 – 9.3 ng g-1 dw
Benzo[k]fluoranthene Research purpose 0.6 – 6.5 ng g-1 dw
Benzo[a]pyrene No known use 0.02 – 1.06 ng g-1 dw
Dibenzo [a, h] anthracene Is used only for research purposes to induce tumorigenesis 1.0 – 1.9 ng g-1 dw
Chlorinated aromatic chemicals Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) Applicable in chemicals, notably herbicides Surface sediments 44.1 pg g-1 dry weight (d.w) Napoleon Gulf and Thurston Bay on the northern shore of L. Victoria, Uganda
Polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) 5.61 pg g-1 dry weight (d.w)
Dioxin-like Polychlorinated bisphenyls (di-PCBs) 136 pg g-1 d. w
Biotoxins - Mycotoxins Aflatoxins Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) Exert inhibitory effects on biological processes including DNA synthesis, DNA-dependent RNA synthesis, DNA repair, and protein synthesis Sorghum 16.0 ± 3.6 µg/kg Kitgum district (103–106)
Maize 1.9 ± 0.9 µg/kg Kitgum and (97,106–109)
Millet 2.9 ± 1.2 µg/kg Lamwo districts, Uganda
4.3 ±1.5 µg/kg
Sesame 2.4 ± 1.1 µg/kg
3.5 ± 2.9 µg/kg
Sorghum 16.0 ± 3.6 µg/kg
Fish feed (Farms) 148 ± 46.9 µg/kg Lake Victoria Basin, Uganda
Fish feed (Factories) 110 ± 39.9 μg/kg Lake Victoria Basin, Uganda -103,104
Aflatoxin B2 (AFB2) Peanuts 0 - 540 μg/kg Mubende, Uganda -103,104
Peanuts 10.5 ± 6.15 μg/kg Iganga markets, Uganda
Peanuts 7.3 ± 4.98 μg/kg Mayuge markets, Uganda
Peanut 11.5 ± 0.43 μg/kg Southwestern Uganda markets -106,110
Sorghum (flour and porridge) 15.2 ± 0.20 μg/kg Southwestern Uganda markets -88,104
Millet (flour and porridge) 14.0 ± 1.22 μg/kg Southwestern Uganda markets -106
Aflatoxin G1 (AFG1) Cassava flour 16.0 ± 1.66 μg/kg Southwestern Uganda -104,106
Eshabwe (porridge) sauce 18.6 ± 2.40 (μg/kg) Southwestern Uganda -106
Peanut paste 0 – 540 μg/kg Kampala markets, Uganda -97,103
Freshly harvested maize (Zea mays L.) 9.6 ± 4.20 μg/kg Mubende markets, Uganda -106,110
10.1 ± 3.10 μg/kg Ibanda markets, Uganda ########
9.1 ± 4.35 μg/kg Jinja markets, Uganda ########
11.0 ± 3.01 μg/kg Hoima markets, Uganda ########
Aflatoxin G2 (AFG2) 10.6 ± 1.63 μg/kg Mayuge markets, Uganda ########
6.5 ± 0.60 μg/kg Buikwe markets, Uganda ########
3.8 ± 1.30 μg/kg Mpigi markets, Uganda ########
7.2 ± 1.99 μg/kg Masindi markets, Uganda ########
8.5 ± 2.56 μg/kg Bugiri markets, Uganda -110
Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) Aflatoxin M1 is usually present in the fermentation broth of Aspergillus parasiticus and is a metabolite of aflatoxin B1 in humans and animals Peanuts 60.3 ± 27.99 μg/kg Kalerwe markets, Uganda -97,106
40.5 ± 12.82 μg/kg Bukoto markets, Uganda
10.3 ± 3.54 μg/kg Nakawa markets, Uganda -97,111
143.1 μg/kg Owino markets, Uganda -97
5.8 ± 12.3 μg/kg Bugiri markets, Uganda -111
Maize 2.9 ± 6 μg/kg Bulambuli markets, Uganda -111
0.7 ± 0.3 μg/kg Bundibugyo areas, Uganda
1.0 ± 0.9 μg/kg Gulu markets, Uganda
290.7 μg/kg Hoima areas, Uganda
2.4 ± 4.0 μg/kg Iganga markets, Uganda
145.5 μg/kg Kabale markets, Uganda
1.0 ± 0.7 μg/kg Kapchorwa areas, Uganda
1.7 ± 0.5 μg/kg Kasese markets, Uganda
1.7 ± 0.5 μg/kg Kiryadongo areas, Uganda
Groundnuts 6.87 μg/kg Northern Uganda
Maize 6.77 μg/kg Northern Uganda ########
Millet 1.46 μg/kg Northern Uganda
Sorghum 10.24 μg/kg Northern Uganda
Ochratoxins (OTA) OTA-A, B, and C Can benefit humans by their use as antibiotics (penicillins), immunosuppressants (cyclosporine), and in control of postpartum hemorrhage and migraine headaches Sorghum 4.4 ± 0.8 n Kitgum markets, Uganda ########
3.5 ± 0.7 ng/g Lamwo markets, Uganda
Maize 3760 ng/g Kitgum markets, Uganda
0.3 ± 0.1nng/g Lamwo markets, Uganda
Millet 1.1 ± 0.3 ng/g Kitgum markets, Uganda
1.0 ± 0.3 ng/g Lamwo markets, Uganda
Sesame 1.5 ± 0.3 ng/g Kitgum markets, Uganda
1.4 ± 0.2 ng/g Lamwo market, Uganda s
Groundnuts 4.89 ng/g Northern Uganda
Maize 0.37 ng/g Northern Uganda
Millet 1.32 ng/g Northern Uganda
Sorghum 7.44 ng/g Northern Uganda
Fumonisins A, B, C and P-series Are usually esterified with propane tricarboxylic acid to provide a hydrophobic/hydrophilic dichotomy that is unique among the mycotoxins Fish feed (Farms) 0.3±0.19 μg/kg Lake Victoria Basin, Uganda (109,113–115)
Fish feed (Factories) 0.2 ± 0.24 μg/kg Lake Victoria Basin, Uganda -109
Peanut paste 80.2– 0.6 μg/kg Kampala markets -104
Groundnuts 1.19 μg/kg Northern parts of Uganda markets ########
Gibbberella fujikuroi species in harvested maize 19.4 – 99.8 μg/kg (109,113–115)
Millet 0.76 μg/kg
Sorghum 4.402 μg/kg
Trichothecene Vomitoxin / Deoxynivalenol Is used as a mycotoxin to induce cytotoxicity in porcine jejunal epithelial cells and study the protective effects of Saccharomyces cerevisiae on the cell viability of host cells. Groundnuts 0.153 μg/kg Northern parts of Uganda markets (109,113–115)
Maize 0.92793 μg/kg
Millet 0.153 μg/kg
Sorghum 0.823 μg/kg
Radionuclides and electromagnetic radiations Primordial radionuclides (naturally occurring noble gases) Radon (226Ra) Uranium-238. Spider plant 8.06 Bq/kg Osukuru phosphate factory areas, Tororo District, Uganda -117,118
Used in making nuclear Sweet potato 7.08 Bq/kg
weapons as a ‘tamper’ Pawpaw 3.55 Bq/kg
material. Sodom Apple 9.14 Bq/kg
Okra 5.34 Bq/kg
Moringa 4.35 Bq/kg
African Basil 10.02 Bq/kg
Aloe vera 4.88 Bq/kg
Ginger 2.99 Bq/kg
18 ± 3 Bqm-3 Dormitories at Adwari S.S., Uganda (94,117–119)
31 ± 3 Bqm-3 Dormitories at Ogor Seed S.S., Uganda
26 ± 3 Bqm-3 Dormitories at Okwang S.S., Uganda
Tororo cement factory area 26 ± 2 Bqm-3 School Dormitories at Orum S. S, Uganda
49 ± 5 Bqm-3 Dormitories at Otuke S.S., Uganda
Tororo mining area 97 ± 5 Bqm-3 Tororo district
Chemical Laboratory tests 96 ± 4 Bqm-3 Eastern Uganda (91,117–119)
Steel company area 72 ± 3 Bqm-3 Steel Works in Eastern Uganda
Hospital area 51 ± 2 Bqm-3 Hospitals in Eastern Uganda
Hotel 28 ± 1 Bqm-3 TLT Hotel in Eastern Uganda
Residential houses 92 ± 4 Bqm-3 Residential houses (closed) in Eastern Uganda
Homestead 45 ± 1 Bqm-3 Houses (Far away) in Eastern Uganda
Thorium (232Th) Used in making Soil mine tailings 119.3 – 376.7 Bq kg-1 Mashonga Gold mine, Uganda -120
lenses for cameras, scientific 211.7 ± 17.3 Bq kg-1 Kikagati Tin mine, Uganda
instruments, high temperature crucibles, and electrical 244.4 ± 10.9 Bq kg-1 Butare Iron ore mine, Uganda
equipment Spider plant 18.60 Bq/kg
Sweet potato 15.51 Bq/kg
Pawpaw 7.67 Bq/kg
Pumpkin 11.26 Bq/kg Medicinal plants in Osukuru, Tororo District, Uganda
Sodom Apple 11.57 Bq/kg
Okra 5.98 Bq/kg
Moringa 13.28 Bq/kg
African Basil 7.37 Bq/kg
Aloe vera 3.00 Bq/kg
Ginger 2.24 Bq/kg
181.2 ± 66.8 Mashonga Gold mine, Uganda -120
Outdoor dose rates in air (1.0 m above the ground level) nGy h-1
167.2 ± 43.0 nGy h-1 Kikagati Tin mine, Uganda
191.6 ± 29.6 nGy h-1 Butare Iron ore mine, Uganda
40K (Potassium-40) Acts as signaling molecule in a wide variety of processes Spider plant 350.17 Bq kg-1 Osukuru mines, Tororo District, Uganda -117
Soil mine tailings 141.0 – 1658.5 Bq kg-1
Sweet potato 365.35 Bq/kg
Pawpaw 297.81 Bq/kg
Pumpkin 437.92 Bq/kg
Sodom Apple 419.72 Bq/kg
Okra 343.78 Bq/kg
Moringa 379.21 Bq/kg
African Basil 363.99 Bq/kg
Aloe vera 275.86 Bq/kg
Ginger 361.07 Bq/kg
Soil mine tailings 391.5±46.3
Uranium (238U) Used in making nuclear 35.5 – 147.0 Bq kg-1 Southwestern Uganda -120
weapons as a ‘tamper’ 58.7±8.8 Bq kg-1 Mashonga Gold mine, Uganda
material. Soil mine tailings 49.7±3.1 Bq kg-1 Kikagati Tin mine, Uganda
57.6±2.9 Bq kg-1 Butare Iron ore mine, Uganda
Other emerging pollutants of concern Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) Food package material, stain- and water-repellent fabrics, Wastewater effluent 1.3 –2.4 ng L−1 Nakivubo wetland area, downstream of Bugolobi WWTP and upstream L. Victoria, Uganda (47,48)
Perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) non-stick products (e.g., Teflon), polishes, waxes, paints, Soils 600 – 3000 pg g-1
cleaning products, fire-fighting foams, industrial facilities Surface water 1.5 –2.4 ng L−1
Perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) (e.g., chrome plating, electronic goods, and oil recovery), Soils 480 – 910 pg gL-1 dw
Perfluotohexanesulfonate (PFHxS) Landfill wastewater treatment plant, and living Wastewater effluent
Perfluoroheptanoate (PFHpA) organisms (e.g. fish, animals, and humans) due to accumulation Plant tissues 0.65 – 0.67
Perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA) and persistence over time Soils 210 – 460 pg gL-1 dw
Average Perfluoroalkane sulfonates (∑PFSAs) Urban runoffs 8.5 – 14 ngL-1
Wet land soil 4200 – 5300 pg g-1 dw Nakivubo wetland, Uganda (47,48)
Sugarcane soil 3000 – 7900 pg g-1 dw
Maize soil 1600 – 4900 pg gL-1- dw
Microplastics Microplastics <1 mm size Plastic materials utilized by communities Surface water of L. Victoria 0.69–2.19 particles/m3 Surface water of northern L. Victoria, Uganda -121
Disinfection byproducts Trihalomethanes Chloroform Uses as an extraction solvent Drinking water 23.07 µg/L Ggaba water treatment plant and water distribution lines, Uganda -122
Bromodichloromethane Was formerly used as a flame retardant but now is used as a reagent or an intermediate in organic chemistry. 10.5 µg/L
Total trihalomethane (TTHM) Used in the treatment of water to kill disease-causing microorganisms. 32.89 µg/L
Particulates Particulate matter PM2.5 Help in implementation of effective pollution control measures and public health interventions to protect people and improve air quality Air samples 152.6 µg/m3 Kampala, Jinja, Mbarara, kyebando and Rubindi districts, Uganda (98,123–126)
Long-term particulate matter PM10 208 µg/m3
Gas Phase Pollutants NO2 Used in the production of nitric acid, lacquers, dyes, and other chemicals 24.9 µg/m3
SO2 Used in the preparation of sulfuric acid, sulfur trioxide, and sulfites 3.7 µg/m3
O3 Is extensively applied for decontamination purposes 11.4 µg/m3
CEC – Critical Environmental concentration values (38).

4. Results and Discussion

In this systematic review, a comprehensive analysis of a total of 137 articles pertaining to the presence and concentrations of emerging pollutants in Uganda was conducted. This investigation successfully identified more than 194 pollutants of emerging concern in Uganda (see Table 2) and subsequently grouped them into 12 major classifications (depicted in Figure 3). These encompass pharmaceuticals, pesticides, persistent organic pollutants (POPs), personal care products, heavy metals, hydrocarbon compounds, biotoxins, radionuclides, electromagnetic radiations, microplastics, disinfection byproducts, and particulates (as detailed in Table 1 and Table 2). The findings from these studies offer valuable insights into the state of emerging pollutants in Uganda and their potential implications for human and environmental health. This diversity reflects the complex nature of pollution sources, including urbanization, industrial activities, agricultural practices, and improper waste management. The identification of these pollutants highlights the need for comprehensive monitoring and assessment programs to better understand their occurrence, behavior, and potential risks to the environment and human health.
The reviewed studies revealed that pharmaceutical compounds, including antibiotics, analgesics, hormones, and antidepressants, have been detected in various environmental matrices such as water bodies and soils. These compounds enter the environment primarily through wastewater discharge and improper disposal of unused medications. The presence of pharmaceuticals in the environment raises concerns about potential ecological impacts and the development of antibiotic resistance (26,38).
In addition, numerous studies highlighted the widespread use of pesticides in agricultural practices in Uganda. These studies identified various classes of pesticides, including insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides, in soil and water samples (46,74,76). Pesticide residues were detected in crops (40), posing risks to both human health and the environment. The findings underscore the need for proper pesticide management practices and the promotion of sustainable agriculture.
The systematic review identified reports on the occurrence of persistent organic pollutants, such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dioxins, and furans, in the Ugandan environment (31,36). These toxic compounds, known for their resistance to degradation, were found in sediments and aquatic organisms. The accumulation of POPs in the food chain raises concerns about potential health effects on humans consuming contaminated fish and other aquatic products.
Studies revealed the presence of personal care products, including fragrances, UV filters, and preservatives, in water sources and aquatic ecosystems. These compounds are commonly used in cosmetics and personal care products and enter the environment through various pathways. The detection of these chemicals in the environment emphasizes the importance of proper wastewater treatment to prevent their release into water bodies.
The review encompassed studies examining heavy metal contamination in Uganda, with a focus on metals such as lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), cadmium (Cd), and chromium (Cr). These metals were detected in water, soil, and biological samples (29,43,45). Elevated concentrations of heavy metals were attributed to industrial activities, mining, and urbanization. The accumulation of heavy metals in the environment can lead to adverse health effects on humans and ecological disruptions.
Studies indicated the presence of hydrocarbon compounds, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and benzene, in soil and air samples in Uganda (63,65). These compounds are released from activities such as vehicle emissions, industrial processes, and burning of biomass. The potential carcinogenic and toxic effects of hydrocarbon compounds underscore the importance of air quality management and emission control measures.
The review also highlighted the occurrence of biotoxins, particularly mycotoxins, in agricultural products and food items. Aflatoxins and other fungal toxins were detected in crops such as maize and groundnuts (97,110,111,127). Consumption of mycotoxin-contaminated foods can pose significant health risks, including liver damage and cancer.
The reviewed studies revealed the presence of natural radionuclides such as uranium and thorium in soil and water samples (117,120). Additionally, concerns were raised about potential exposure to electromagnetic radiations, including radiofrequency and microwaves, from sources such as mobile communication towers (53–55).
Several studies highlighted the presence of microplastics in water bodies, including lakes and rivers, as well as in fish species consumed by humans (121). The ubiquitous distribution of microplastics in the environment raises concerns about their impact on aquatic ecosystems and potential ingestion by humans through the food chain.
The review identified reports on disinfection byproducts, such as trihalomethanes (THMs), in drinking water supplies (122). In addition, particulate matter, including fine and coarse particulates (PM2.5 and PM10), was also a subject of investigation in air quality studies (98,124,125).

4.1. Sources and Distribution Patterns

The review identified urban areas, industrial zones, and agricultural regions as major sources of emerging pollutants in Uganda (29,48,97,103). Rapid urbanization and inadequate waste management practices contribute to the discharge of pollutants into water bodies, leading to contamination of surface and groundwater resources (23,70,128). Industrial activities generate various chemical byproducts that can contaminate the surrounding environment (37,44,47,89). Agricultural practices involving the use of pesticides and fertilizers contribute to soil and water pollution (65,73,74,76). Understanding these sources and distribution patterns is crucial for targeted interventions and pollution control strategies.

4.2. Emerging Pollutants in Surface Water

The findings of the systematic review revealed a widespread occurrence of emerging pollutants in surface water bodies across Uganda. Pharmaceuticals, including antibiotics and hormones, with concentrations of 1 – 5600 ngL-1 were frequently detected in surface water samples at Murchison bay of Lake Victoria (26,38), indicating their presence as contaminants of emerging concern. The discharge of untreated or inadequately treated wastewater from domestic, industrial, and healthcare facilities into water bodies is a significant contributing factor to pharmaceutical contamination. A concentration of 100 – 500 ngL-1 of diclofenac was detected in the wastewater effluents of Bugolobi WWTP which is the main wastewater treatment plant in Uganda (37,38). These contaminants can have adverse effects on aquatic organisms and ecosystems, potentially leading to the development of antibiotic resistance and disruption of endocrine systems (37,129).

4.3. Wastewater as a source of Emerging Pollutants

Wastewater was identified as a significant source of emerging pollutants in Uganda (39,49,130). Pharmaceuticals, personal care products, and various chemical compounds in wastewater samples were detected in the industrial and municipal wastewater from Kampala city via Nakivubo channel, and Bugolobi WWTP effluents. 89 – 1400 ngL-1 of Triclosan an antibiotic in soaps, toothpaste and detergents was detected in the effluents from Bugolobi WWTP (39). In addition, 0.84 – 1.04 mg/Kg of cadmium a toxic heavy metal was detected in the water and sediments of Nakivubo channel and its increased concentration is attributed to the untreated industrial effluents in this drainage channel (29). Inadequate wastewater treatment infrastructure and practices contribute to the release of these contaminants into the environment, especially in urban areas and regions with high population densities. The presence of emerging pollutants in wastewater calls for the implementation of improved treatment technologies and stringent regulatory measures to ensure the removal or reduction of these contaminants before discharge.

4.4. Emerging Pollutants in Sediments

Sediments serve as a sink for pollutants, accumulating various emerging contaminants over time. The systematic review identified the presence of heavy metals (45), pesticides (27), and microplastics (52) in sediment samples from different water bodies in Uganda. Industrial activities, mining, and agricultural runoff were identified as major sources of sediment pollution (100). A study conducted by (29) detected a concentration of 79 – 138.18 mg/Kg of lead in water and sediments of Nakivubo channel. The persistence of these pollutants in sediments raises concerns about potential long-term impacts on benthic organisms and the potential for their re-entry into the water column. Effective sediment management strategies, including remediation efforts and the implementation of best management practices in industrial and agricultural sectors, are crucial to minimize the impacts of emerging pollutants on sediments and associated ecosystems.

4.5. Ambient Air as a transport medium for Emerging Pollutants

While the systematic review focused primarily on emerging pollutants in water, it is important to note that some contaminants can also be transported through the air. Airborne particles and gases can carry pollutants such as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and microplastics over long distances, leading to their deposition in ecosystems, including water bodies and soils. Study conducted by (124,125), 152.6 µg/m3 of PM2.5 and 208 µg/m3 of PM10 were measured in air samples around the districts of Kampala, Jinja and Mbarara in Uganda. This review identified that a few studies investigating airborne emerging pollutants have so far been done. However, considering the industrial growth, vehicular emissions, and open burning practices prevalent in certain regions, further research is warranted to assess the potential presence and impacts of airborne emerging pollutants in Uganda.

4.6. Emerging Pollutants in Foods

Although the systematic review primarily focused on environmental matrices, it is essential to consider the potential transfer of emerging pollutants into the food chain. Contaminated water, soil, and sediments can contribute to the accumulation of pollutants in crops, aquatic organisms, and livestock. 0.5 – 4.6 ppm of arsenic was detected in processed peanuts (97) and also 156.9 ppm of chromium were detected in raw bovine milk and herbal medicines in Kampala and Wakiso districts in Uganda. This can pose risks to human health through the consumption of contaminated food products. The presence of pesticides, heavy metals, and pharmaceutical residues in food items can lead to acute or chronic health effects, such as pesticide toxicity or the introduction of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Robust monitoring programs and adherence to good agricultural practices are necessary to ensure food safety and minimize the exposure of consumers to emerging pollutants. The systematic review on emerging pollutants in Uganda provides valuable insights into the nature, sources, distribution, and potential impacts of these contaminants in the country. The discussion of the results focuses on key findings, their implications, and recommendations for future research and policy interventions.

5. Environmental and Health Impacts

The reviewed studies have underscored the environmental impact of emerging pollutants on ecosystems and biodiversity. These pollutants, including pharmaceuticals, personal care products, heavy metals, and pesticides, have been identified in surface waters, posing significant risks to aquatic organisms. They have the potential to disrupt endocrine systems and reproductive processes (26,28,29,38,58). Additionally, pesticide residues found in soils can adversely affect soil health, microbial communities, and non-target organisms, contributing to ecological imbalances (68,73).
Waterborne exposure to emerging pollutants through drinking water sources can have enduring consequences, such as antibiotic resistance and endocrine disruption (26,36,38). Contaminants accumulating in biota can propagate risks through the food chain, potentially causing acute toxicity, chronic health conditions, and further endocrine disruption (4,45,131). Moreover, occupational exposure to these emerging pollutants, particularly among workers in agriculture and waste management sectors, has been linked to various acute and chronic health effects.
The presence of pharmaceuticals and personal care products detected in Lake Victoria, a primary source of drinking water in Uganda, raises concerns regarding antibiotic resistance development and water resource contamination (26,68,73). In agricultural areas like Kakira and Entebbe, pesticide residues have been identified in soils, surface waters, and crops, signifying ecological disruption and human exposure risks (27,68,73). Urban areas have reported the presence of microplastics in various environmental compartments, including water bodies, soils, and the air. These findings suggest potential impacts on human health and the environment (121).
It is evident from these studies that addressing emerging pollutants is imperative to safeguard ecosystems, biodiversity, and human health in Uganda. However, these risks are not confined to aquatic environments. Airborne emerging pollutants, encompassing volatile organic solvents, different particles like microplastics and engineered nanoparticles, and bio-aerosols, can infiltrate the human body through inhalation, dermal contact, or ingestion, leading to a range of health issues (3,4,12,132).
Waterborne emerging pollutants, primarily stemming from agricultural, industrial, and domestic activities, can contaminate surface water, groundwater, municipal wastewater, and drinking water sources (5,12). Microplastics, a notable emerging pollutant in water, accumulate various contaminants as they traverse the food chain, amplifying the risk (5,52,121,133). The contamination of surface waters, including rivers and lakes, with emerging pollutants like pesticides, pharmaceuticals, perfluorinated alkylated substances, and personal care products, has become a growing concern due to its potential harm to freshwater resources and public health. Furthermore, emerging pollutants can also jeopardize groundwater quality, which serves as a critical source of fresh water for various purposes. While traditional pollutants are well-regulated, the emergence of new substances with uncertain immediate effects presents a substantial challenge for groundwater protection.

6. Current Monitoring and Regulation Efforts

In Uganda, various efforts have been undertaken to monitor and assess emerging pollutants to comprehend their presence, concentrations, and potential environmental and human health risks. Monitoring initiatives encompass collaborations with institutions like the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA), which plays a pivotal role in environmental management and hotspot identification(17). The Ministry of Water and Environment, specifically the Directorate of Water Resources Management, conducts routine water quality assessments, encompassing emerging pollutants, in surface waters, groundwater, and drinking water sources. Additionally, academic and research institutions, including universities and research centers, actively contribute to monitoring by evaluating emerging pollutants in diverse environmental compartments and offering valuable scientific insights for policymaking.
While Uganda has made substantial strides in monitoring emerging pollutants, certain challenges persist in effectively regulating and managing these substances. Existing regulatory mechanisms, spearheaded by NEMA, establish a foundation for addressing emerging pollutants through environmental regulations, guidelines, and standards (17,134). Nevertheless, opportunities for enhancement exist, particularly in the formulation of comprehensive, targeted regulations dedicated to emerging pollutants and improved data collection and accessibility. Constraints in monitoring capacity and resource availability hinder the implementation of comprehensive, routine monitoring programs. Consequently, there is a pressing need for expanded research efforts to deepen our understanding of the prevalence, fate, and impacts of emerging pollutants. Access to comprehensive data is pivotal for the development of effective mitigation strategies.
Strengthening technical expertise and monitoring capabilities concerning emerging pollutants is paramount, necessitating advanced analytical techniques and fostering collaboration between research institutions and regulatory bodies. Additionally, refining regulatory frameworks to address emerging pollutants specifically, including the formulation of guidelines and standards, is vital. Raising awareness among the public, policymakers, and industries is also imperative. This can be achieved through educational and outreach programs that promote responsible practices and sustainable alternatives. By addressing these gaps and challenges, Uganda can enhance its monitoring, regulation, and management of emerging pollutants more effectively.

7. Mitigation Strategies and Future Direction

Effective approaches and technologies are crucial for mitigating the impacts of emerging pollutants in Uganda. Upgrading wastewater treatment systems with advanced technologies like advanced oxidation, activated carbon adsorption, and membrane filtration can remove pharmaceuticals, personal care products, and other emerging pollutants (4,135–137). Promoting sustainable agriculture practices, such as integrated pest management (IPM) techniques and organic farming, can reduce pesticide use. Implementing source control measures and improving waste management practices can prevent the release of emerging pollutants. Encouraging the use of green chemistry principles and developing eco-friendly alternatives can minimize the generation and release of emerging pollutants.
To enhance monitoring, regulation, and enforcement of emerging pollutants in Uganda, specific regulations targeting emerging pollutants should be established, along with guidelines, standards, and monitoring requirements. Increasing funding and resources for monitoring programs, strengthening the capacity of regulatory agencies and research institutions, and improving data collection and sharing mechanisms are essential. Conducting public awareness campaigns to educate the public about emerging pollutants and promoting responsible practices and sustainable alternatives are important. These policy recommendations will contribute to effective monitoring, regulation, and management of emerging pollutants in Uganda.
Research gaps in studying emerging pollutants in Uganda include investigating their occurrence and impacts in the air, assessing ecological effects on different ecosystems, studying their presence and accumulation in food crops and livestock, understanding their fate and transport mechanisms in various environmental compartments, and conducting comprehensive studies on the potential health risks associated with exposure. Addressing these gaps will provide a better understanding of emerging pollutants and inform the development of effective policies and interventions to minimize their environmental and health impacts in Uganda.

8. Conclusions

This systematic review presented a comprehensive assessment of the state of pollution from the emerging pollutants in Uganda, shedding light on the nature, sources, distribution, and potential impacts of these contaminants. The findings underscore the urgent need for action to address the challenges posed by emerging pollutants to Uganda’s ecosystems and public health. This systematic review revealed that a diverse range of emerging pollutants, including pharmaceuticals, personal care products, pesticides, industrial chemicals, and microplastics, are present in various environmental compartments in Uganda (Table. 2). Studies have identified specific compounds within each category of emerging pollutants, with varying concentrations reported across different matrices. The spatial and temporal distribution of emerging pollutants indicates higher concentrations in urban areas, agricultural regions, and near industrial zones. Additionally, the review identified the potential sources and pathways of these pollutants, such as industrial discharges, agricultural practices, domestic wastewater, and improper waste disposal (26,37). Rapid urbanization, inadequate waste management practices, industrial activities, and agricultural practices contribute to the release of these contaminants into the environment.
The findings of this systematic review have significant implications for environmental management and public health in Uganda. First, the presence of emerging pollutants in environmental compartments raises concerns about their adverse effects on ecosystems, biodiversity, and ecosystem services. They can persist in the environment, accumulate in living organisms, and enter the food chain, leading to adverse effects on aquatic ecosystems, biodiversity loss, soil degradation, and potential health issues such as endocrine disruption, antibiotic resistance, and carcinogenicity. To address the challenges posed by emerging pollutants, it is crucial to implement robust policies, regulations, and mitigation measures. Strengthening waste management systems, promoting sustainable agricultural practices, and implementing pollution control measures in industrial sectors are essential steps to reduce the release of emerging pollutants into the environment. Additionally, the establishment of monitoring programs is necessary to track pollutant levels and assess their long-term impacts. These measures should be supported by research endeavors that focus on understanding the fate, transport, and ecological impacts of emerging pollutants in specific regions of Uganda.
Addressing emerging pollutants in Uganda is of utmost importance to safeguard the environment and protect public health. The systematic review highlights the need for continued research and action in several areas. Further research is required to fill the existing gaps in knowledge, including the assessment of ecological effects, emerging pollutants in air, fate and transport mechanisms, and the long-term impacts on human health. It is crucial to strengthen monitoring programs, enhance technical capacity, and promote data sharing and accessibility. Additionally, there is a need to improve regulatory frameworks specifically targeting emerging pollutants, raise public awareness, and promote sustainable practices across various sectors in Uganda and Africa. Taking proactive measures to address emerging pollutants will contribute to sustainable environmental management, protect ecosystems and biodiversity, and minimize risks to public health. It requires collaboration among government agencies, research institutions, industries, and the public. By prioritizing research, implementing effective mitigation strategies, and refining regulatory frameworks, Uganda can work towards minimizing the release and impact of emerging pollutants, ensuring a cleaner and healthier environment for present and future generations.

Supplementary Materials

N/A.

Author Contributions

GB: Literature editing, manuscript writing, and conceptualization, BG: Literature search and Draft manuscript, A.G: Draft manuscript, H.T: Literature search and editing, W.A: Literature search, and P.O: Literature search.

Funding

This work received no funding.

Ethics of Approval and Consent to Participate

Not Applicable.

Consent for publication

All authors have read and given consent to the publication of this article.

Data Availability Statement

All data generated or analyzed during this review has been included in this published article.

Acknowledgments

Authors are thankful to the University of Nevada Las Vegas and Kampala International University for their commitment in encouraging research in the area of public health, risk assessment, and toxicology.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be constructed in this published article.

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