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Hydrogen: An Integral Player in the Future of Sustainable Transportation. A survey of Fuel Cell Vehicle Technologies, Adoption Patterns, and Challenges

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05 October 2023

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09 October 2023

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Abstract
The increasing global demand for energy and the pressing challenge of environmental pollution necessitates a paradigm shift towards sustainable energy sources. Hydrogen, a viable renewable energy carrier, has the potential to substantially alleviate these concerns. This review offers a comprehensive exploration of the technologies imperative to the production and operation of fuel cell vehicles (FCVs), ranging from various fuel cell types, hydrogen storage methods, fueling station logistics, batteries in hydrogen vehicles, and the emerging influence of artificial intelligence and quantum computing. An analytical overview of global adoption patterns reveals significant geographical disparities, with the United States and South Korea at the forefront of FCV integration, primarily in the form of passenger cars, followed by buses and trucks. Asia emerges as the region with the highest proportion of FCVs. This paper also delves into the diverse challenges facing FCV implementation, shedding light on the essential role of continued investment in the evolution of sustainable transportation systems. Furthermore, it provides insights into the varying contributions of different companies in the field, demonstrating the collective effort required to advance this promising technology. The comprehensive exploration provided in this review aids in understanding the opportunities, challenges, and potential of hydrogen as an integral player in the future of sustainable transportation. The increasing need for energy carriers and the rise of environmental pollution have driven the exploration of renewable energy sources, with hydrogen being a promising option.
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Subject: Engineering  -   Automotive Engineering

1. Introduction

Modern society is heavily dependent on the finite resources of fossil fuels, a reliance which leads to significant environmental damage through CO2 emissions [1]. As the world's energy demand continues to escalate, the quest for sustainable, alternative energy sources is driven by increasing concerns for environmental sustainability [2,3,4]. The transportation sector represents a significant portion of global energy consumption and is responsible for approximately 23% of the world’s total carbon emissions [5]. Transitioning to sustainable transportation is crucial. Hydrogen fuel is a promising alternative to fossil fuels, reducing greenhouse gas emissions [6]. Hydrogen fuel can be produced through electrolysis with renewable energy sources or steam reforming of natural gas. Hydrogen is primarily used for fuel cell vehicles, which are more efficient, quiet, and emit zero emissions compared to traditional gasoline-powered vehicles [7]. The high cost of hydrogen fuel cell technology and lack of infrastructure limits the widespread adoption of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. However, progress is being made in their development and deployment, which can reduce reliance on fossil fuels and mitigate the negative impacts of energy consumption on the environment [8]. Investment in research and development of hydrogen fuel cell technology and infrastructure is vital to realizing its potential as a clean and sustainable energy source. Fuel cell vehicles have the potential to increase fuel efficiency and may even be more powerful than traditional internal combustion engines [9].
Fuel cells are a cutting-edge technology with remarkable potential for generating environmentally friendly electricity. These cells work via catalytic reactions between fuels and oxidants, employing the principles of electrochemistry. They initiate reactions between a fuel source, most commonly hydrogen, and an oxidant, typically oxygen from the air, which results in the production of electricity and water [10]. One of the most promising applications of fuel cells is in hydrogen-powered vehicles. Fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) come with several benefits including zero emissions, extended driving ranges, and rapid refueling times [11]. These vehicles can significantly contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions and the reliance on fossil fuels in the transport sector [12]. FCVs predominantly use proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) due to their high efficiency and compatibility with automotive applications. PEMFCs operate at lower temperatures than other fuel cell types, allowing for faster startup times and better responsiveness in vehicles. These cells use a polymer electrolyte membrane to facilitate electrochemical reactions between hydrogen and oxygen, generating electricity that powers the vehicle's electric motor. Besides PEMFCs, other types of fuel cells are also used in fuel cell vehicles [13]. Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) operate at higher temperatures and can directly convert various fuels, like hydrogen, methane, and carbon monoxide, into electricity. Alkaline fuel cells (AFCs) provide high efficiency and have been used in early fuel cell vehicle prototypes. Direct methanol fuel cells (DMFCs) and direct ethanol fuel cells (DEFCs) use methanol and ethanol as fuels, respectively, bypassing the need for hydrogen storage [14]. The diversity of these fuel cell types contributes to the overall variegation of fuel cell technology in the automotive sector. Hydrogen fuel cells offer several advantages for automotive applications. They possess a higher energy density compared to batteries, providing longer driving ranges [15]. Refueling a hydrogen-powered vehicle is also quicker than recharging an electric vehicle's battery, taking only a few minutes. Moreover, hydrogen fuel can be produced from renewable sources, enabling a greener and more sustainable energy cycle. Despite the considerable potential of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, there are challenges that must be overcome to realize their widespread adoption. A major hurdle is the development of a comprehensive hydrogen refueling infrastructure that guarantees the presence and accessibility of hydrogen fueling stations. Initiatives are ongoing to extend this infrastructure and make hydrogen refueling more broadly available. Another key factor to make fuel cell vehicles more affordable is cost reduction. Lowering the cost of fuel cell components, such as platinum catalysts, membranes, and balance-of-plant systems, is necessary [16]. This can be achieved through technological advancements and economies of scale. Research and development efforts are focused on enhancing the durability and lifespan of fuel cell systems, which is critical for their long-term reliability and cost-effectiveness. Various strategies, including advanced catalyst materials, improved membrane durability, and efficient water management systems, are being investigated to tackle these durability challenges [17]. Figure 1 shows various types of fuel cells.
South Korea, United States, China, and Japan have the highest number of FCVs on their roads, with passenger cars making up more than 80% of all FCVs [24]. In 2020-2021, Hyundai and Toyota were the leading manufacturers of FCVs [25]. Asia has the highest number of hydrogen refuelling stations (HRSs), with Japan, China, and South Korea having almost equal numbers [26]. In Europe, most HRSs are in Germany and France, with many other European countries also contributing positively. In North America, the majority of HRSs are situated in the United States, with California leading in numbers. Canada holds the second-highest concentration of HRSs in this region [27]. The number of FCVs and HRSs increased significantly in 2021. Incentives for purchasing FCVs vary among countries, with South Korea offering the most attractive option. In most countries, incentives for FCVs and BEVs (Battery Electric Vehicles) are the same and provide limited reductions in vehicle prices [28]. Europe has introduced FCVs on their roads with low numbers, while China leads in fuel cell buses and trucks. Despite challenges such as high production costs and limited infrastructure, the increasing interest in hydrogen-based transportation globally suggests a move towards sustainable and environmentally friendly transportation. As technology advances and costs decrease, widespread adoption of FCVs and expansion of hydrogen refueling networks may become a reality. Despite the growing body of literature on hydrogen as a sustainable energy source and its application in FCVs, a comprehensive review that elucidates the current state of FCV adoption, associated technologies, infrastructure, and the future prospects remains elusive. Additionally, the role of emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence and quantum computing in the realm of FCVs has not been adequately explored in the existing literature. This paper strives to bridge these knowledge gaps. By providing a comprehensive review of the existing and potential technologies related to FCVs and examining their global adoption patterns, this paper offers an inclusive perspective of the field. It integrates analyses of various fuel cell types, hydrogen storage methods, refueling infrastructures, and the potential contributions of artificial intelligence and quantum computing to the sector. Furthermore, it probes the challenges inhibiting the wider adoption of FCVs and highlights the roles different stakeholders, including companies and governments, play in shaping the FCV landscape. In doing so, this paper contributes to the existing body of knowledge by offering a consolidated and up-to-date resource for researchers, policymakers, and stakeholders in the renewable energy and transportation sectors, aiding them in the quest for cleaner and sustainable solutions.
The paper follows the following structure in an organized manner. It begins with Section 1, which serves as an introduction to fuel cell vehicles. Section 2 and Section 3 focus on crucial aspects such as hydrogen storage and hybrid vehicles based on hydrogen, respectively. Section 4 then elaborates on the intricate technology employed in refueling hydrogen stations. Continuing the discussion, Section 5 sheds light on various types of batteries that can be utilized in fuel cell vehicles. Section 6 and Section 7 explore the applications of AI and quantum computing in fuel cell vehicles, highlighting their significant contributions. Subsequently, Section 8 and Section 9 present an overview of specific companies that incorporate fuel cells in their vehicles, along with insights into the fuel cell vehicle landscape. Section 10 delves into the challenges and opportunities associated with these types of vehicles, providing a comprehensive analysis. Finally, the paper concludes in Section 11, summarizing the key findings and concluding remarks.

2. Fueling the Future: Advancements in Hydrogen Storage Technologies

Hydrogen is a sustainable and eco-friendly fuel, but its storage is challenging due to its gaseous nature. Pressurized tank storage is a physical method that allows for more fuel to be stored in a smaller space, but it is expensive and can be hazardous if not handled properly [29]. Metal hydrides store hydrogen at moderate conditions, but they are heavy and costly. Lithium nitride is a promising material that can quickly take and release hydrogen, but it needs more research to improve its performance for fuel cells and other uses [30]. Metal hydrides store hydrogen by absorbing it into interstitial sites within their crystalline structure, forming metal-hydrogen bonds. The strength of these bonds depends on the metal and the hydride compound. The hydrogen storage capacity can be improved by altering the metal or hydride composition, adding a catalyst to enhance reaction kinetics, and using nanoscale particles to increase surface area. To release the stored hydrogen, the material is heated or exposed to a catalyst. Figure 2 represents a metal hydride storage.
Cryogenic liquid hydrogen storage is a common way to store hydrogen for fuel cell vehicles. It cools hydrogen gas to very low temperatures to make it liquid, which can store more hydrogen. Liquid hydrogen has high energy density, but it needs a lot of energy to cool, and tanks can be expensive and hard to keep. Also, cryogenic liquid can be dangerous to handle and store. Still, cryogenic liquid hydrogen storage is an important option for many uses [32]. Figure 3 shows a cryogenic liquid hydrogen storage.
In recent years, extensive research and development have been dedicated to advancing hydrogen storage technologies, specifically within the realm of mobility applications. Researchers worldwide have undertaken diverse projects aimed at mitigating challenges and maximizing the potential of hydrogen storage. This continuous endeavor has led to the exploration of various storage methods, each characterized by its unique strengths and limitations. One paper explores the technical and economic aspects of storing hydrogen underground in various reservoirs and cavities, while also considering the challenges and opportunities for future research. Additionally, it reviews hydrogen storage systems for mobility applications and compares compressed hydrogen with other technologies [34]. Another paper compares various hydrogen storage technologies for mobility applications and concludes that compressed hydrogen is the most practical option, despite its drawbacks [35]. Meanwhile, an article examines nanostructured materials for hydrogen storage and proposes strategies for improving storage performance using nano-porous materials, metals, functionalities, and lightweight components [36]. Other studies have focused on specific storage systems and technologies. For instance, one paper reviews hydrogen storage systems and fast refueling technology for fuel cell vehicles, and describes a metal hydride tank with fins for heat exchange which was tested with hydrogen and a fuel cell [37]. Another paper delves into intermetallic compounds for solid-state hydrogen storage, which have been found to have superior properties compared to conventional storage technologies [38]. Finally, a study investigates how tank temperature affects hydrogen flow and consumption in a metal hydride storage system for a fuel cell vehicle. Results showed that a higher heat exchanger temperature improved the tank's discharge, but a higher flow rate reduced the hydrogen supply and changed the tank temperature quickly [39]. To conclude, these studies highlight the ongoing research and development in the field of hydrogen storage, as well as the challenges and opportunities that lie ahead. As hydrogen continues to play an increasingly important role in the transition to a low-carbon economy, advances in storage technology will be crucial in facilitating its widespread use in mobility applications.

3. Hydrogen-Powered Hybrid Cars: A Green Revolution on Wheels

Fuel cell hybrid vehicles use hydrogen and electric motors to power vehicles in a clean and efficient way. They have no emissions and can use renewable hydrogen from various sources [40]. Figure 4 illustrates the schematic of a fuel cell vehicle.
FCHVs use a fuel cell, a battery, and an electric motor to move the vehicle. The fuel cell makes electricity from hydrogen and water, which powers the motor. The battery helps the motor and saves extra energy [42]. FCHVs have benefits like no emissions and a long range, but they also face challenges like the lack of hydrogen refueling stations and the high cost of hydrogen production, which may improve over time [43]. A diagram of the parallel hybrid powertrain is shown in Figure 5.
The series hybrid uses the ICE to charge the batteries for the motor, which drives the vehicle. This makes the vehicle lighter and more efficient. The ICE can work optimally and more alternative energy devices can be used. Regenerative braking is possible, but the motor must be bigger [45]. A diagram of the series hybrid powertrain is shown in Figure 6.
The series-parallel hybrid powertrain uses both series and parallel features, letting the motor and ICE work separately or together. This design gives flexibility to improve performance for different driving but needs a lot of hardware like a transmission and generator [47].

4. Hydrogen Refueling Stations: A Green and Radiant Future for Sustainable Transportation

Hydrogen refueling stations are imperative for fuel cell vehicles, as they store and compress hydrogen gas before it is put into the vehicle's tank. Though they are not yet very common, they can be found mainly in California, Japan, and Europe [48]. As automakers invest more in hydrogen fuel cell technology, there is a growing need for more hydrogen refueling stations. These stations can range from small ones for fleets to larger ones for the public, and some even produce hydrogen on-site using renewable energy [49]. While hydrogen is a clean and efficient fuel for vehicles, there are still some challenges to overcome. These include the high cost of stations, the short range of vehicles, and the need for more research and development. However, the potential benefits of hydrogen refueling stations are significant, as they can change the transportation industry and lower emissions. As the technology continues to grow, more investment and innovation are expected to help it progress further [50]. A recent research has identified various difficulties in making and using hydrogen stations, including environmental and cost issues that are dependent on how hydrogen is produced and brought to stations. Planning stations and solving problems have made some progress, but more research is necessary to match station supply and vehicle demand [51]. Studies have also explored the benefits of hydrogen fueling infrastructure, including a model for the best hydrogen network for Ontario's HWY 401 and a study on the infrastructure for hydrogen fueling to decarbonize road transport in Scotland. These studies emphasize the importance of the fast deployment of hydrogen infrastructure to replace diesel and the need to include the effect of transportation infrastructure investments on the adoption of sustainable investments [52]. Designing safe infrastructure for hydrogen fueling is also crucial, as hydrogen has special properties that require careful solutions. One article proposes a two-level method to evaluate and optimize the safety of land planning, bunkering, and people on board [53]. In summary, despite the challenges, the potential benefits of hydrogen refueling stations for vehicles are significant, and as the technology continues to grow, it has the potential to transform the transportation industry and lower emissions. Figure 7 illustrates a refueling hydrogen station.

5. Exploring the Battery Landscape in Hydrogen Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Batteries in hydrogen vehicles have multiple roles, such as starting the vehicle and powering auxiliary systems. They also manage energy flow by storing excess energy from the fuel cell system and providing it during periods of high demand. Furthermore, batteries capture and recycle energy through regenerative braking. Hydrogen vehicles employ different types of batteries for specific purposes [54]. The auxiliary battery, similar to conventional automotive batteries, initiates vehicle operation and powers auxiliary systems. The traction battery, often utilizing advanced lithium-ion technology, stores and delivers energy from the fuel cell system, acting as a buffer during high power demand. Supercapacitors, with their rapid energy storage and release capabilities, can also be integrated for enhanced performance [55]. Figure 8 compares various types of battery energy storage in terms of efficiency and lifetime.

6. Revolutionizing Fuel Cell Vehicles with Artificial Intelligence (AI)

Advancements in AI have opened up new possibilities for improving FCV EMSs, leading to improved efficiency, reliability, and personalization. Recent researches have explored various AI-based EMSs for FCVs, including deep reinforcement learning for rail transportation, machine learning for predicting fuel cell degradation, and reinforcement learning-based energy management strategies for FCHEVs and hybrid fuel cell/battery propulsion systems in vehicles and coastal ships. These studies demonstrate the potential for AI to significantly enhance the performance of FCVs and promote the adoption of hydrogen energy devices in transportation and other sectors. Several studies have explored the use of machine learning techniques to optimize the performance of fuel cell systems and prevent degradation.
For example, one study developed an energy management system for rail transportation that used deep reinforcement learning to reduce hydrogen consumption and fuel cell ageing costs. The system balanced battery charging and discharging and adapted to different conditions [56]. Another study used machine learning to predict the degradation of a fuel cell stack, which affects hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. The study highlighted the importance of preventing fuel cell degradation, which can increase fuel consumption and CO2 emissions [57]. Other studies have focused on developing reinforcement learning-based energy management strategies for fuel-cell hybrid vehicles. These strategies use pre-initialization frameworks, power distribution rules, and other techniques to optimize the RL algorithms and achieve near-optimal results, extending the fuel cell system's lifetime [58]. In addition, machine learning algorithms have been used to predict fuel cell voltage decay, localize hydrogen leaks, and regulate oxygen supply to fuel cells in electric vehicles. These methods have shown promising results in improving fuel economy, reducing degradation, and improving overall system performance [59,60,61]. Overall, these studies demonstrate the potential of machine learning in optimizing fuel cell systems and promoting sustainable transportation. As the field continues to advance, we will likely see even more innovative applications of machine learning in energy management and sustainability.

7. Revolutionizing the Automotive Industry: How Quantum Computing is Paving the Way for Sustainable Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles

Quantum computing is a rapidly advancing technology that has the potential to revolutionize many aspects of the automotive industry. By optimizing fuel cell performance and efficiency, developing new materials for fuel cell components and hydrogen storage, and simulating complex chemical reactions, quantum computing can significantly improve research and development in the field [62]. One of the key benefits of quantum computing for the automotive industry is its ability to optimize hydrogen delivery and refueling infrastructure, creating more efficient and accessible fueling networks. Despite still being in the early stages, quantum computing has the potential to transform hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, creating a sustainable and efficient transportation system that reduces reliance on fossil fuels and helps mitigate climate change [63]. Several studies have explored the potential of quantum computing in optimizing different aspects of the automotive industry. For example, one study proposed a framework for assessing the potential of quantum computing in the transport sector and demonstrated its feasibility through a vehicle routing optimization problem. The authors presented novel advances to reduce computational resources and achieve significant circuit performance enhancement on a real quantum device [64]. Other studies have explored the use of quantum computing for inventory routing and task offloading in vehicular networks. These studies have proposed mathematical formulations and evaluated their suitability for quantum algorithms, highlighting the potential of quantum computing for decision-making in vehicle routing problems [65,66]. In addition, quantum computing has been shown to have significant potential for predicting the behavior of molecular composite materials for automotive research, with a focus on liquid hydrogen storage. The research has highlighted the improved prediction performance of molecular dynamics modelling [67].
In conclusion, these studies demonstrate the potential of quantum computing in transforming the automotive industry, creating more efficient and sustainable transportation systems. As the field continues to advance, we will likely see even more innovative applications of quantum computing in this area, leading to significant advancements in fuel cell technology and beyond.

8. Shaping the Future of Transportation: A Detailed Analysis of Fuel Cell-Powered Vehicle Models and Industry Innovators

The Toyota Mirai and Hyundai Nexo stand out as notable fuel-cell vehicle models that have embraced fuel-cell technology. They both utilize Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC), renowned for their high power density and rapid startup times. The Toyota Mirai achieves a range of over 300 miles on a single tank of hydrogen, while the Hyundai Nexo offers an impressive range of approximately 380 miles. These vehicles provide compelling evidence of fuel-cell vehicles' practicality as alternatives to conventional vehicles, effectively addressing concerns related to range anxiety [68].
Fuel-cell vehicles offer significant environmental benefits, producing zero emissions and having the potential to integrate with renewable energy sources. However, challenges persist in terms of scaling up hydrogen production and establishing a comprehensive refueling infrastructure. On the economic front, fuel-cell vehicle costs are decreasing due to technological advancements and supportive policies [69]. The Toyota Mirai and Hyundai Nexo serve as prime examples of successful integration of fuel-cell technology in vehicles, showcasing advancements in technology, performance, and sustainability [70]. Fuel-cell vehicles have the potential to revolutionize the automotive industry and contribute to a greener and more sustainable future of transportation.
Lessons learned from fuel-cell vehicle case studies underscore the importance of collaboration, continuous innovation, market readiness, and sustainability. Collaborative efforts are crucial for infrastructure development, technological advancements, and policy support. Ongoing innovation is essential to improve efficiency, durability, and cost-effectiveness. Achieving market readiness involves meeting consumer needs and ensuring a seamless user experience. Fuel-cell vehicles can contribute significantly to sustainability goals by producing zero emissions and utilizing renewable hydrogen. These lessons serve as driving forces for the successful adoption and advancement of fuel-cell vehicles toward a greener and more sustainable future of transportation.

9. An Overview of Fuel Cell Vehicle Landscape: Global and Regional Trends, Vehicle Types, and Adoption Levels

The geographical map of fuel cell vehicle distribution worldwide reveals a pattern of varying adoption levels across countries. The United States and the Republic of Korea lead with 12,358 and 19,404 vehicles, respectively, followed by Japan and China with 6,741 and 8,474. In Europe, Germany has 1,549 fuel cell vehicles, followed by the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and France. Smaller nations like Denmark and Norway have relatively higher numbers of fuel cell vehicles per capita, indicating a strong focus on sustainable transportation. The map emphasizes the global trend towards fuel-cell vehicle adoption and the need for continued investment to promote a sustainable future. Figure 9 shows worldwide fuel cell distribution.
The distribution of fuel cell passenger cars across countries highlights the adoption of this technology. The Korea leads with 19,270 cars, followed by US with 12,283 and Japan with 6,631. Germany is also showing commitment with 1,452 cars. European countries have emerging markets with counts ranging from 1 to 180. Some countries are at early stages of implementation, while others show increasing interest with counts ranging from 231 to 488. Continued efforts and investments in infrastructure and incentives are crucial to accelerate deployment worldwide and promote sustainable transportation solutions. Figure 10 represents geographic diversity of passenger fuel cell vehicle [71].
The Figure 12 shows the distribution of global fuel cell vehicle shares by continent, with Asia having the highest share at 67.4%, followed by North America at 24.5%, Europe at 7.7%, and Australia at 0.4%. The data highlights Asia's dominance in vehicle allocation, with North America and Europe also having significant shares [72].
The chart 11 shows the distribution of fuel cell vehicle types, with passenger cars having the largest share at 82.0%. Buses have a notable share at 9.2%, while medium-duty trucks, heavy-duty trucks, and light commercial vehicles have smaller shares. The chart highlights the widespread use of passenger cars for personal transportation and the significance of other vehicle categories in different transportation sectors [73].

10. Challenges, Opportunities, and Future Directions

Fuel cell vehicles (FCEVs) offer several advantages over traditional engines, but they also face various challenges in technology, cost, infrastructure, and market development. Extensive research is needed to improve the performance of fuel cells and reduce the costs associated with hydrogen production. Additionally, investment in infrastructure is vital to support the widespread adoption of FCEVs. Efforts should also be made to enhance public awareness and acceptance through education campaigns [25].
To enhance the reliability and efficiency of fuel cell vehicles, researchers are actively developing new materials and designs. However, the limited availability of hydrogen refueling stations remains a challenge [74]. To address this issue, governments and private industries are investing in the development of a comprehensive network of refueling stations. Safety considerations are paramount, and researchers are working on developing new safety features and protocols for handling and storing hydrogen, ensuring that FCEVs are a safe and secure option for consumers.
The high production and maintenance costs, uncertain hydrogen prices, and lack of infrastructure pose significant challenges for FCEVs. Moreover, they face competition from battery electric vehicles. Nevertheless, the growing global demand for clean vehicles, along with technological advancements, renewable hydrogen production methods, vehicle-to-grid capability, and international cooperation, offer promising market prospects for FCEVs. Continued innovation and investment will be essential to fully realize the benefits of FCEVs for the future of transportation [75].
Governments can play a crucial role in promoting the adoption of FCEVs through various means. These include providing financial incentives, establishing emissions standards, investing in infrastructure, allocating funds for research and development, fostering international cooperation, and implementing safety regulations for hydrogen handling[76].
There are several research and development opportunities in the field of fuel cell vehicles. These include the development of new materials and manufacturing processes for fuel cells, improvements in hydrogen production methods and refueling infrastructure, integration of FCEVs into existing systems, and addressing policy and regulatory frameworks. Additionally, understanding consumer attitudes towards FCEVs can inform strategies for their wider adoption. Table 1 reviews some recent works done on fuel cell vehicles.

11. Conclusions

The increasing demand for energy sources and environmental pollution have prompted the search for renewable energy alternatives, and hydrogen is a promising option. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of the technologies required for fuel cell vehicles, such as different types of fuel cells, hydrogen storage and refueling stations, and the integration of artificial intelligence and quantum computing. It also examines global statistics, which show that the adoption of fuel cell vehicles varies across countries, with the US and South Korea leading the way. Passenger cars are the most common, followed by buses and trucks, and Asia has the highest share of fuel-cell vehicles. Continued investment is essential for sustainable transportation solutions. The paper also discusses the challenges and contributions of various companies in this field. Hydrogen is a clean energy source that can replace fossil fuels for transportation, but it faces barriers such as cost and lack of infrastructure that limit its widespread use. Fuel cells offer a way to produce clean hydrogen energy, but they are expensive and have few refueling stations available, which hinders their large-scale commercialization. However, technological improvements and cost reductions may enable hydrogen to become a reality for a sustainable transportation system in the future. Hydrogen refueling stations are vital for fuel cell vehicles but still scarce due to high costs and technical difficulties. Developing and innovating in hydrogen infrastructure will facilitate the adoption of hydrogen fuel cell technology and the transition to sustainability in transportation. Strategies for the optimal design and location of hydrogen stations, considering production methods, demand scenarios, and transportation network effects, are important for the successful deployment of hydrogen-based mobility. Fuel cell vehicles such as the Toyota Mirai and Hyundai Nexo demonstrate the potential of hydrogen power for zero-emission transportation through high performance, long-range, and fast refueling. The use of proton exchange membrane fuel cells and the optimization of fuel cell stacks and components enable high efficiency and smooth vehicle integration for the Mirai and Nexo models. The main takeaways are the importance of collaborative efforts, continuous innovation, market readiness, and sustainability focus for wider adoption of fuel cell vehicles to transform transportation.

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Figure 1. Fuel Cells Redefined: Discovering the Spectrum of Technologies Driving Clean Power. PEMFCs [18]; (b) SOFCs [19]; (c) DMFCs [20]; (d) Alkaline fuel cell [21]; (e) Phosphoric Acid fuel cell [22]; (f) Molten Carbonate fuel cell [23].
Figure 1. Fuel Cells Redefined: Discovering the Spectrum of Technologies Driving Clean Power. PEMFCs [18]; (b) SOFCs [19]; (c) DMFCs [20]; (d) Alkaline fuel cell [21]; (e) Phosphoric Acid fuel cell [22]; (f) Molten Carbonate fuel cell [23].
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Figure 2. Unlocking the Power of Metal Hydride Storage: A Pathway to Efficient Energy Storage [31].
Figure 2. Unlocking the Power of Metal Hydride Storage: A Pathway to Efficient Energy Storage [31].
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Figure 3. Chilling the Future: Exploring the Potential of Cryogenic Liquid Storage [33].
Figure 3. Chilling the Future: Exploring the Potential of Cryogenic Liquid Storage [33].
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Figure 4. Powering the Future: A Schematic Journey into Fuel Cell Vehicles [41].
Figure 4. Powering the Future: A Schematic Journey into Fuel Cell Vehicles [41].
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Figure 5. parallel hybrid powertrain [44].
Figure 5. parallel hybrid powertrain [44].
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Figure 6. Series hybrid powertrain [46].
Figure 6. Series hybrid powertrain [46].
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Figure 7. Fueling the Future: Exploring the World of Hydrogen Refueling Stations.
Figure 7. Fueling the Future: Exploring the World of Hydrogen Refueling Stations.
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Figure 8. Comparing different types of batteries [3].
Figure 8. Comparing different types of batteries [3].
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Figure 9. Fuel Cell Vehicles Around the World: A Journey through Geographic Diversity [71].
Figure 9. Fuel Cell Vehicles Around the World: A Journey through Geographic Diversity [71].
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Figure 10. Global Wanderers: Mapping the Geographic Distribution of Passenger Fuel Cell Vehicles [71].
Figure 10. Global Wanderers: Mapping the Geographic Distribution of Passenger Fuel Cell Vehicles [71].
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Figure 11. Fuel Cell Vehicle Diversity: Exploring the Distribution of Different Types Across the Globe [72].
Figure 11. Fuel Cell Vehicle Diversity: Exploring the Distribution of Different Types Across the Globe [72].
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Figure 12. Exploring the Global Distribution of Fuel Cell Vehicles by Continent.
Figure 12. Exploring the Global Distribution of Fuel Cell Vehicles by Continent.
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Table 1. Driving into the Future: Insights from a Literature Review on Fuel Cell-Powered Cars.
Table 1. Driving into the Future: Insights from a Literature Review on Fuel Cell-Powered Cars.
No. Ref. Year Focus Summarized Highlights
1 [25] 2023
  • Efficiency advantages of Fuel Cell Vehicles
  • Cost as a major barrier for Fuel Cell Vehicles
  • High-temperature proton exchange membranes (PEMs)
  • Low-cost catalyst layers (CLs)
  • Reducing balance of plant (BOP) components
  • PEMFCs show potential for low-emission transportation sectors.
  • Study examines advantages and disadvantages of PEMFC technology.
  • Discussion on different fuel cell types and their uses.
  • Review of recent challenges faced by current fuel cell technology in the automotive industry.
2 [77] 2023
  • Biomass-fueled SOFC-GT system performance comparison
  • Influence of fuel composition and operating conditions on system performance
  • Exergy analysis and exergy destruction in the solid oxide fuel cell
  • optimal fuel selection
  • reducing losses in various components of the SOFC-GT hybrid system
  • Comparative study of pine sawdust, poplar sawdust, and almond shell in an SOFC-GT hybrid system.
  • Comparison of exergy analysis for each component using the three biomass options.
  • Evaluation of performance using eight modified dimensionless exergy indicators.
  • Pine sawdust demonstrates the highest thermal efficiency at specific conditions.
3 [78] 2023
  • EVs (Electric Vehicles)
  • HFCVs (Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles)
  • Market promotion
  • Power supplement methods
  • Fuel storage and transport
  • Market-oriented promotion of EVs is crucial for increasing consumer preference and acceptance. EVs and HFCVs have complementary roles in different scenarios.
  • Continued research is needed to explore the feasibility and safety of using hydrogen as aviation fuel.
4 [79] 2022
  • Hydrogen storage options
  • Liquefied hydrogen
  • Cryocompressed hydrogen
  • Compressed hydrogen in cylinders
  • Metal hydrides
  • Liquid organic hydride carriers (LOHCs)
  • Methylcyclohexane/toluene system (MTH system)
  • Mixed hydride system
  • The advantages and disadvantages of various hydrogen carriers are discussed. The MTH system is a promising LOHC for onboard use.
  • The thermodynamics and kinetics of metal hydrides and the potential of new LOHCs are analyzed.
  • A comparison is made between the single tank and cascade systems in terms of energy consumption and techno-economic performance.
5 [29] 2022
  • Hydrogen refueling station
  • Single tank vs. cascade system
  • Filling time
  • Energy savings
  • Techno-economic performance
  • A comparison is made between single tank and cascade system designs in a hydrogen refueling station. Energy savings are achieved with the cascade system.
  • The techno-economic performance of the station is assessed and the optimal pressure switching point for improved energy consumption is identified.
6 [40] 2023
  • Fuel cell system
  • Integrated management strategy
  • Energy efficiency
  • Nearly optimal operation points
  • Contraction-based control
  • This paper proposes a strategy to improve fuel cell efficiency with management techniques. It creates a dataset and simple rules for fuel cell operation. It uses a control approach to ensure system convergence.
7 [80] 2022
  • Hydrogen energy storage
  • Supercapacitor
  • Energy storage
  • Bibliometric analysis
  • Hybrid power system
  • This paper studies hybrid energy systems with hydrogen, batteries, and supercapacitors. It analyzes a system with hydrogen storage and its performance. It finds the most cited papers and the key challenges in this field. It also shows the promising research areas in this domain.
8 [48] 2023
  • Hydrogen station Refueling infrastructure Layout Equipment and components Active research Experimental analysis and modeling review
  • The study reviews the current state of hydrogen refueling stations.
  • Explores the thermodynamic challenges and opportunities of hydrogen storage and refueling.
9 [81] 2021
  • Quantum computing and annealing
  • Intelligent transportation
  • D-wave quantum computer
  • Intelligent transportation system (ITS)
  • Path planning
  • Transportation operation management
  • Transportation facility layout
  • How quantum computing can improve transportation systems
  • The differences between universal and special-purpose quantum computers
  • The challenges and benefits of using quantum computing for traffic optimization
10 [82] 2022
  • Multi-criteria optimization
  • Hydrogen vehicles
  • Combined cooling
  • Power and hydrogen
  • Thermal and Hydrogen storage
  • Ground source heat pump
  • The article evaluates two new operation strategies for a poly-generation system and studies how hydrogen load variation affects system performance.
  • It analyzes the electricity, hydrogen, and heating distribution throughout the year and the impact of biomass and electricity costs on system performance.
11 [83] 2022
  • hydrogen fueling stations
  • ejector
  • efficient utilization
  • computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling
  • entrainment capacity
  • The article presents a new hydrogen fueling station concept that uses an ejector to increase high-pressure hydrogen use.
  • The concept is verified by computational modelling, showing good entrainment performance. Higher nozzle pressure leads to higher back pressure.
12 [84] 2017
  • hydrogen fueling stations
  • regulations
  • safety barriers
  • best practices
  • The article reviews safety and risk management for hydrogen fueling stations, especially for distribution activities and devices.
13 [85] 2018
  • Battery electric vehicles
  • Hydrogen powered vehicles
  • Dual energy system
  • Powertrain concept
  • The article suggests a fuel cell hybrid powertrain for electric vehicles and studies its performance and efficiency with genetic algorithms.
  • It emphasizes the importance of electricity and hydrogen integration, renewable energy and consumption habits for clean transportation. It foresees new prospects and innovation for vehicle designers.
14 [50] 2022
  • Fuel cell vehicle Life cycle assessment Fuel cell stack Hydrogen production methods Energy consumption Global warming potential (GWP)
  • The study reviews the current state of hydrogen refueling stations and explores the thermodynamic challenges and opportunities of hydrogen storage and refueling.
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