I. Introduction
Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is a spontaneous inflammatory disease originating from the central nervous system, also known as white matter disease. Physical immune diseases often occur in the central nervous system. It will gradually damage the myelin sheaths of neurons in the brain and spinal cord, while also leading to the appearance of sclerotic plaques, damaging the normal function of nerve fibers. The causes of MS are generally believed to be related to genetic, immunological, and environmental factors, with over 2 million people worldwide currently suffering from this disease. The onset age of MS is generally between 20 and 45 years old, and young people have a higher incidence. Early research on MS reported that the number of female patients was significantly higher than that of males, with a ratio of 2:1 [
1].
The onset of MS is insidious or sudden. Common symptoms include depression, dizziness, fatigue and heat sensitivity, Lyme characteristics (when the neck is flexing, it feels like an electric shock down the spinal cord), numbness, tingling sensation, pain, bladder dysfunction, visual defects (monocular or diplopia), weakness, and uncoordinated movements. Frequent accompanying signs include tremors in movement, decreased sensation of pain, shaking, and position, decreased muscle tone, hyperreflexia, spastic state, Babinsky's sign, imbalance, decreased visual sensitivity, decreased red vision with pale optic disc, lack of coordination in binocular movements, and nystagmus.
Currently, the treatment of MS includes acute phase treatment and remission phase treatment. Treatment in the acute phase mainly relies on relieving symptoms, shortening the course of disease, reducing nerve damage, and preventing complications. The main goal of remission therapy is to control the disease [
2]. Therefore, in order to improve the cure rate of MS patients, it is necessary to detect and diagnose them as soon as possible.
In recent years, with the development of big data and artificial intelligence, there has been a large amount of cross research between medicine and computer science. Computer assisted diagnosis plays a very important role in the field of medical image detection. Medical institutions use technologies such as magnetic resonance imaging, computed tomography, and X-ray to detect the location of circular, oval, and patchy lesions in patient brain images. This plays a significant role in early detection, diagnosis, and monitoring of diseases. In the past, doctors and disease experts could only rely on experience and manual pattern recognition when evaluating images, which was very time-consuming and labor-intensive. By using deep learning network models to intelligently recognize and locate images, it is now possible to better assist clinical doctors in diagnosing MS, which is of great significance for patients to receive early diagnosis and treatment [
3].
At present, scholars have applied neural network models to MS image detection and achieved certain results. Han J et al [
1] proposed a training method for feedforward neural networks based on wavelet entropy and adaptive genetic algorithm (WE-FNN-AGA), which was implemented in 10-fold cross validation. J. Han and S.-M. Hou [
4] also proposed the use of deep learning methods to improve the detection rate of MS and thus the treatment opportunities of patients, proposing a new method based on artificial neural networks trained with hu moment invariants and particle swarm optimization (HMI-FNN-PSO). To address this challenge, Y. J. Zhao et al [
5] developed a Dirichlet Mixture of Gaussian Processes with Split-kernel (S-DPM) and built a mixture model, where each component consists of instances with similar deviation characteristics. D. Lima [
6] proposed a novel approach for the recognition of multiple sclerosis (MS) using wavelet entropy and a Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO)-based neural network (WE+PSONN).
This article proposes a detection and recognition algorithm for multiple sclerosis based on wavelet entropy(WE) and self-adaptive particle swarm optimization (SaPSO) for brain detection of MS disease. The main research content is as follows: A feedforward neural network with a single hidden layer was constructed in the experiment; To reduce the feature dimension and training complexity, discrete wavelet transform is used to extract features from the image, and wavelet entropy is extracted from the decomposed wavelet subbands; To prevent the feedforward neural network from falling into local optima during the training process, an self-adaptive PSO algorithm was used to optimize it to improve the stability of the detection results.
According to the research work done, this paper is divided into five chapters, each chapter is as follows: Part 2 presents the data set of the experiment. Part 3 introduces the methods used in this experiment. And, part 4 introduces and explains the results and compares them with other more advanced methods.
II. Dataset
The health dataset used in the experiment was provided by Zhang [
7]. The MS images were obtained from eHealth laboratory. All cases have been experienced neurologist MS identification, and confirmed by the radiologist. Samples of healthy and MS diseased brains are showed as
Figure 1.
III. Methodology
B. Feedforward Neural Network
Artificial neural network (ANN) in machine learning is constructed by imitating the biological neural network structure of the human brain [
21]. It has nodes and internal connections between nodes [
22]. The nodes in it are programmed to behave similarly to real neurons, hence the name artificial neurons.
Figure 4.
Wave entropy operation process.
Figure 4.
Wave entropy operation process.
Deep learning is to establish a set of more complex artificial neural network models on the basis of machine learning. One of the classical models is called feedforward neural network(FNN) [
23], which allows computers to build complex models through relatively simple concepts. The essence of FNN is a mathematical function, which can map a set of input data into output data. Such a complex function is composed of many simpler functions [
24].
For example, if we have three functions, they are composed to form the following function, defined as (9).
where,
f(1) represents the input layer of FNN;
f(2) represents the hidden layer of FNN;
f(3) represents the output layer of the feedforward neural network. This formula describes the simplest feedforward neural network model [
25].
A multidimensional FNN is usually composed of input layer
xi, hidden layer
hnj and output layer
yk (where the subscript
n of
hnj is the number of hidden layers, and
j represents the number of neurons in the
n-th hidden layer) [
26]. There is no feedback in the whole network, and the signal propagates one way from the input layer to the output layer, which can be represented by a directed acyclic graph, as shown in
Figure 5.
In feedforward neural networks [
27], linear functions need to calculate the inputs of the hidden layer and the output layer. For the
j-th neuron in the
n-th hidden layer, assuming the number of inputs is
i, the corresponding linear function of the input is
f(nj)(x) as shown in (10).
The function
f(nj)(x) is a typical linear regression function [
28], where
xi is the input layer tensor, and
wij represents the connection weights between neurons in different layers. When calculating the output value of the neuron, the feedforward neural network uses a nonlinear function to calculate [
29].
In both hidden and output layers, all neurons have to employ a nonlinear activation function ∅ to calculate their output values. For the j-th neuron on the n-th hidden layer, its activation function ∅(nj) can be expressed as (11), (12).
As shown in (11) (12), the input value of any neuron in the hidden layer is the difference between
f(nj)(x) and the threshold
θnj. This difference will be used as a variable in the activation function
∅(nj) to calculate the output value [
30].
The neurons in the output layer
yk use a similar algorithm to the neurons in the hidden layer to calculate the input and output values. So, in terms of the FNN classifier, the output value
y = f(*)(x) of the output neuron represents that the input layer
x is mapped to a certain class by the FNN model [
31].
In this experiment, a FNN containing only a single hidden layer (n = l) was built. The 10 wavelet entropies extracted from the MS brain image are used as the neural network input vector , so the number of neurons in the input layer is 10 (i = 10). The MS brain detection is a binary classification problem, so the output layer contains 2 (k = 2) neurons. The number of neurons in the hidden layer is set to 40 (j = 40).
C. Self-adaptive Particle Swarm Optimisation (SaPSO)
Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) [
32] is an optimization algorithm based on the foraging behavior of birds, which can find the optimal solution by simulating the motion and interaction of particles in the search space [
33]. It has the ability of global optimization and high efficiency and is widely used in various fields [
34]. Machine learning is an important part of modern information technology, and the application of particle swarm optimization in machine learning is more and more extensive [
35]. Particle swarm optimization can be used in neural network training, model optimization, feature selection, etc [
36].
The core of the particle swarm optimization is a continuous movement of all particles and constantly updates their locations until they converge to find the optimal location [37, 38]. The update of particle positions in particle swarm optimization follows (13).
where,
t is for time,
pi is a position vector representing the position of particle
i, and
veli is the distance and direction the particle is moving, which is calculated by (14).
where,
w is for the quality of inertia of the particle,
c1 and
c2 for acceleration constant,
r1 and
r2 to [0,1] is uniformly distributed random variables, within the scope of
Pibest for particle the best candidate for the solution of the position vector,
Pgbest is the best place for all particles [
39].
However, the particle motion path of PSO has obvious limitations [
40]. When the particle initial position path and local optimal path do not exist global optimal, the model can easily fall into local optima. In addition, the behavior of all particles moving towards the optimal solution found at the same time is a waste of computational resources [
41].
So we use SaPSO to optimize the initial weights and thresholds of the FNN to speed up the training convergence and make it reach the global optimum.
SaPSO is an optimization algorithm, which is a variant of PSO. Different from the traditional PSO, SaPSO uses an adaptive strategy to adjust the parameters of the algorithm to improve the performance and convergence speed of the algorithm.
In SaPSO, each particle has two states: the exploitation state and the exploration state. When the particle is in the utilization state, it follows the traditional PSO and moves towards the current population optimum and the individual optimum [
42]. When the particle is in the exploration state, it is far away from the current individual optimal solution and the worst solution, and searches in other directions. The speed of updating the particle position in the exploration state is calculated according to (15).
where,
Piworst represents the worst solution found by the particle
i.
The global optimal solution is finally obtained by iteratively updating the velocity and position of the particles.
D. K-fold Cross-validation
Partitioning the dataset according to data usage is an important way to avoid overfitting and improve model robustness in deep learning. However, large datasets are often difficult to obtain in many fields [
43]. Thus, partitioning the dataset leads to too few training samples, which leads to a higher probability of overfitting and a reduced robustness of the model. One of the practical solutions to such problems is cross-validation, which can improve data utilization by repeating the interrupt and partition steps [
44]. The idea of
k-fold cross-validation is as follows:
Firstly, all samples are divided into k subsets with the same size.
Each time, the current subset was used as the validation set, and all the remaining samples were used as the training set to train and evaluate the model.
Finally,
the average value (
Ei,i= 0,1,2,...,9) of evaluation indicators() is taken as the final evaluation indicator. In the experiment, 10-fold cross-validation (
k = 10) is used to evaluate the performance of the detection algorithm, and the verification method is shown in
Figure 6.
IV. Experiment Results and Discussions
A. WE Results
The
Figure 7 shows a sample of the results of the 3-level wavelet transform of this experiment, where (a) is the raw image, (b) is the raw with plaques outlined. We perform 3-level 2D-DWT on this map to decompose 10 wavelet subbands. Each level of wavelet decomposition is carried out in the approximate subband, and the other three frequency bands containing detailed information are called detailed subbands. The image (c) shows the final output of 3-level wavelet transform.
B. Statistical Results
The model is trained by SaPSO and 10-fold cross- validation is used as the data set segmentation mechanism. To evaluate the performance of our detection algorithm, we identified Specificity (SP), Sensitivity (SE), Accuracy (AC), Precision (PR), F1score, Matthews correlation coefficient (MCC) and Fowlkes-Mallows Index (FMI) as indicators.
The mean and standard deviation (MSD) is shown in
Table 1, with an average sensitivity of 92.29±1.89, specificity of 92.54±0.67, precision of 92.48±0.59, accuracy of 92.42±0.88, and F1 score of 84.85±1.74, Matthews correlation coefficient of 92.37±0.96, and Fowlkes Mallows Index of 92.38±0.96.
C. Comparison to State-of-the-art Approaches
In this paper, a detection algorithm based on WE-SaPSO is proposed to detect multiple sclerosis brain images, and this method is compared with the advanced detection algorithm proposed by four other researchers in the same field. The experimental results are shown in
Table 2.
In terms of sensitivity (SE), the result of WE-FNN-AGA is 91.91±1.24, the HMI-FNN-PSO is 91.67±1.41, DMGPS is 88.99±1.20, and WE+PSONN is 91.95±1.15. Meanwhile, the accuracy (AC) of WE-FNN-AGA and WE+PSONN reached 91.95±1.19 and 92.16±0.90, while the detection results of HMI-FNN-PSO and DMGPS were only 91.70±0.97 and 88.78±0.95, respectively.
Therefore, the experiment proves that the detection algorithm based on WE-SaPSO (ours) is more effective for the detection of multiple sclerosis brain map.
V. Conclusions
As far as possible in order to improve the efficiency of the doctor's diagnosis, reduce diagnostic time cost, this paper proposes a multiple sclerosis brain image detection based on WE-SaPSO algorithm. In the traditional FNN detection method, DWT is used to decompose the high and low frequency feature information of images, which is conducive to image recognition and classification. At the same time, the WE is used to convert the brain map into 10×1 feature vector, so as to reduce the calculation cost. Then SaPSO optimizes the feedforward neural network. SaPSO algorithm can adjust the parameters adaptively compared with the classical PSO algorithm, thus improving the convergence accuracy and speeding up the convergence speed. Therefore, this algorithm can obtain better detection results.
In future work, we will try to further expand the research from the following slowdowns:
(1) Increasing the data collection sample. There are not many data samples in the training of the model in this paper, which will have a certain impact on the test results. At the same time, the algorithm proposed in this paper can be applied to the training and testing of pneumatic disease brain map, which needs to be further implemented.
(2) In the later stage, we will consider increasing the depth of the neural network and adjusting the network structure to improve the detection accuracy, while ensuring that the computational cost is reduced and the experimental complexity is reduced.
Artificial intelligence and deep learning technologies are constantly evolving. In the future, more excellent optimization algorithms will continue to appear in medical image detection, which is of great significance to the research of medical image detection.
Funding
state key laboratory of millimeter waves (Grant No. K202218)
Acknowledgment
We would like to extend our heartfelt thanks to a host of people, without whose assistance the accomplishment of this thesis would have been impossible. This research was funded by the open project of State Key Laboratory of Millimeter Waves (Grant No. K202218).
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