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Review

A Comparison of Clinical Outcomes of Robot-Assisted and Conventional Laparoscopic Surgery

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04 December 2023

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05 December 2023

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Abstract
Background: Robot-assisted laparoscopic surgery robot-assisted surgical system has gained significant popularity over open and laparoscopic interventions. However, given its high costs, it remains unclear what clinical advantages robot-assisted laparoscopic surgery offers over conventional laparoscopic surgery. Objective: This umbrella review aims to synthesize and compare the clinical outcomes of robot-assisted laparoscopic surgery versus conventional laparoscopic surgery for five surgical procedures. Inclusion criteria: All systematic reviews and meta-analyses published in the past five years that compared the clinical outcomes of conventional laparoscopic surgery and robot-assisted laparoscopic surgery for cholecystectomy, colectomy, hysterectomy, nephrectomy and/or prostatectomy were included. Methods: A systematic literature search was conducted in PubMed and Scopus. The quality of all included reviews was assessed with the AMSTAR 2 quality assessment tool. Each review’s study characteristics (and a list of primary sources) were extracted, along with the quantitative and qualitative data for the following ten clinical outcomes: blood loss, rate of conversion to open surgery, hospitalization costs, incisional hernia rate, intraoperative complication rate, postoperative complication rate, length of hospital stay, operative time, readmission rate and wound infection rate. Results: Fifty-two systematic reviews and (network) meta-analyses were included in this umbrella review, covering more than 1,288,425 patients from 1046 primary sources published between 1996 and 2022. The overall quality of the included reviews was assessed to be low or critically low. Robot-assisted laparoscopic surgery yielded comparable results as conventional laparoscopic surgery in terms of blood loss, conversion to open surgery rate, intraoperative complication rate, postoperative complication rate, readmission rate and wound infection rate for most surgical procedures. While the hospitalization costs of robot-assisted laparoscopic surgery were higher and the operative times of robot-assisted laparoscopic surgery were longer than conventional laparoscopic surgery, robot-assisted laparoscopic surgery reduced the length of hospital stay of patients in nearly all cases. Conclusion: Robot-assisted laparoscopic surgery achieved comparable results with conventional laparoscopic surgery for cholecystectomy, colectomy, hysterectomy, nephrectomy and prostatectomy based on ten clinical outcomes. Further research is needed to prove that robot-assisted laparoscopy is as safe and reliable as conventional laparoscopic surgery.
Keywords: 
Subject: Medicine and Pharmacology  -   Surgery

1. Introduction

The first demonstration of a laparoscopic instrument dates back to 1901 by surgeon Georg Kelling, but it took many more years before the laparoscopic approach to be introduced in the operating theatre [1,2]. From 1960 onwards, laparoscopic surgery advanced quickly and, despite some resistance at first [3], it developed into an independent surgical approach. Since the twenty-first century, laparoscopic surgery has become a preferred surgical procedure of which the scope of applicability continues to expand. New technologies enabled even more potential, such as robot-assisted laparoscopic surgery, novel instrument designs and enhanced imaging capabilities [1].
Even though laparoscopic surgery has proven to be beneficial for patients compared to open surgery regarding the length of hospital stay and infection rates in procedures such as cholecystectomy [4] and colorectal surgery [5,6], it remains unclear what clinical advantages robot-assisted laparoscopic surgery (RALS) has over conventional laparoscopic surgery (CLS) for the patient. RALS is associated with high acquisition, training, instrumentation and maintenance costs [7]. RALS systems are therefore affordable only for wealthy surgical centres with a large volume of patients [8]. New developments within laparoscopic instrumentation, such as modular, cleanable and therefore, reusable components, may pave the way for more affordable RALS systems in the future [9]. Technical advantages of RALS compared to CLS include immersive 3D viewings, improved ergonomics, and enhanced dexterity due to features such as tremor filtration, motion scaling, and instrument articulation [10,11]. The question remains whether these technical advantages have translated into improved clinical outcomes for patients too.
As the field of RALS develops rapidly, this umbrella review provides an updated, comprehensive analysis of clinical outcomes for five surgical procedures (colectomy, cholecystectomy, hysterectomy, nephrectomy and prostatectomy) and synthesizes current evidence on the use of robot-assisted laparoscopic surgery and conventional laparoscopic surgery.

2. Methods

The extensive research and the ongoing debate about whether RALS or CLS yields better clinical outcomes justifies the conduction of an umbrella review [12,13]. An umbrella review systematically identifies and collects data from multiple systematic reviews and meta-analyses on a given subject [14,15,16]. This umbrella review adheres to the PRISMA guidelines, Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses [17]. This section outlines the methodology used, including the databases utilized, the search queries established, the eligibility criteria formulated for the inclusion and exclusion of identified studies, the PRISMA evaluation process, the quality assessment with AMSTAR 2, the data extraction method and the structuring of the extracted data.

2.1. Search Strategy

The MEDLINE and EMBASE databases were searched with PubMed and Scopus.
A search strategy was developed to identify systematic reviews and (network) meta-analyses published in the past five years (2018/01/01 up to 2023/01/01) and written in the English language, that compared robot-assisted laparoscopic surgery versus conventional laparoscopic surgery for five specific surgical procedures related to abdominal-pelvic organ removal. The following surgical procedures, which are commonly executed within minimally invasive surgery (RALS and CLS) [4,18,19,20,21], were selected: colectomy (partial or complete); cholecystectomy; hysterectomy; nephrectomy; and prostatectomy. A separate search query was formulated for each surgical procedure (Table 1, Table 2 and Table A7). Search results were filtered on study type, systematic reviews and (network) meta-analyses, and year of publication. It was decided to include reviews published within the past five years only to consolidate the latest research and data, particularly given the rapid advancements in RALS.

2.2. Eligibility Criteria

The established eligibility criteria were based on the Population, Intervention, Comparison, Outcomes and Study design (PICOS) principle [22]. Articles that studied human adults (P), compared CLS with RALS for colectomy and/or cholecystectomy and/or hysterectomy and/or nephrectomy and/or prostatectomy (I, C), reported at least one of the clinical outcomes of interest: intraoperative blood loss, conversion to open surgery rate, hospitalization costs, incisional hernia rate, intraoperative complication rate, postoperative complication rate, length of hospital stay, operative time, readmission rate and/or wound infection rate (O), in a systematic review or (network) meta-analysis (S), were included. In case a systematic review or meta-analysis covered multiple surgical procedures of which one (or more) was of interest, the review was included and only the relevant data were extracted.
Additionally, the following exclusion criteria were established:
  • Studies that focused on certain comorbidities (e.g. obesity);
  • Studies that reported none of the clinical outcomes of interest;
  • Studies that did not compare the outcomes of CLS and RALS separately, but combined RALS and CLS into one minimally invasive surgery group instead;
  • Descriptive studies that defined protocols or methods;
  • Studies that researched the effects of intervention timing;
  • Studies that focused on recovery programs (after RALS or CLS);
  • Studies that focused on pre-operative difficulty prediction scores; and
  • Studies of which full-text was unavailable.
Records were evaluated by means of the PRISMA criteria: the Preferred Reporting Items for Systemic Reviews and Meta-Analyses [17], as shown in Figure 1.
The quality of all included systematic reviews and meta-analyses was assessed by means of the AMSTAR 2 quality assessment tool [23,24] [25]. Instead of generating an overall score, AMSTAR 2 utilizes a quality rating system [23]. This rating system expresses the level of confidence in the findings of a systematic review. The 16 items of AMSTAR 2 are split into critical (7) and non-critical (9) flaws, which are listed in Table 3.

2.3. Data extraction

Four types of tables have been constructed for data extraction: (1) a table with the study characteristics of included reviews, (2) tables with the quantitative findings for the included outcomes (3) tables with qualitative data provided in studies and (4) a table (along with graphs) with the final or overall synthesized findings from the reviews. A data extraction Excel sheet was created, based on the standardized data extraction tool from [16], which ensures similar data extraction across all of the included studies.
The quantitative data that were extracted from the included reviews are listed in separate tables (cholecystectomy Table 6; colectomy Table 7, Table 8 and Table 9; hysterectomy Table 10, nephrectomy Table 11, prostatectomy Table 12). Some meta-analyses performed a general analysis to compare RALS and CLS for a given surgical category (e.g. colectomy), while others focused their analyses on specific subgroups (such as single- or multiple-incision laparoscopy or left hemicolectomy). In meta-analyses that conducted general analyses, only the pooled results were extracted (regardless of any subgroup analyses). In cases where meta-analytic studies only performed subgroup analyses, data were extracted and included in the quantitative table along with additional information specifying the scope of these data. This is because pooled results are preferred as they include larger sample sizes [14]. Qualitative data was extracted and processed into tables too (cholecystectomy Table A2; colectomy Table A3; hysterectomy Table A4, nephrectomy Table A5, prostatectomy Table A6).

Summary of Evidence

Per clinical outcome, for each surgical category, horizontally stacked bar charts were constructed as shown in Figure 2. Each bar chart was split into three categories: CLS, RALS and None.
  • CLS: this portion of the bar is coloured red. The length of this part represents the number of systematic reviews and meta-analyses that provided quantitative or qualitative data showing a significant difference in favour of CLS for a given clinical outcome.
  • None: this portion of the bar is coloured yellow. The length of this part of the bar represents the number of systematic reviews and meta-analyses that provided quantitative or qualitative data showing that RALS and CLS derived comparable results for a given clinical outcome.
  • RALS: this portion of the bar is coloured green. The length of this part of the bar represents the number of systematic reviews and meta-analyses that provided quantitative or qualitative data showing a significant difference in favour of RALS for a given clinical outcome.
These bar charts synthesize the findings of all reviews listed in the quantitative and qualitative tables. Based on these bar charts, conclusions were drawn in a final table (Table 13). Per surgical category and in general, it was indicated whether the data of all reviews showed comparable results (i.e. ‘None’) or significant benefits in favour of ‘RALS’ or ‘CLS’ for each clinical outcome. In cases with insufficient evidence to favour one method over the other, it was indicated in the table as ‘RALS/None’ or ‘CLS/None’. The results were presented in a stoplight format: red denotes a preference for CLS, yellow indicates comparable outcomes between CLS and RALS, and green indicates that RALS is the superior option for that particular outcome. A grey background was used in RALS/None and CLS/None cases.

2.4. Corrected Covered Area

The corrected covered area (CCA) indicates how much overlap exists between the data of the included systematic reviews and meta-analysis [26]. High levels of overlap should generate more consistent conclusions [25]. An example is given in Table 4, where primary source 3 is included in three different systematic reviews, while primary source 1 is included in two reviews and primary source 2 is included only once. Calculating the percentage of overlap (which would be 66%) does not take into account multiple inclusions of a single source, but CCA does. The CCA is calculated with Equation (1).
C C A = N r r c r * 100 %
N is the total amount of included articles (hence the ticked boxes), r is the number of primary sources (hence the number of rows) and c is the number of systematic reviews (hence the number of columns in Table 4). The CCA for the example given in Table 4, is:
C C A = 6 3 3 * 3 3 * 100 = 3 6 * 100 % = 50 %
The CCA score ranges between 0-100% and the overlap interpretation is given in Table 5 [26]. CCA scores were calculated for each surgical category using a citation matrix.
Table 4. A citation matrix. Primary source 1 is included in systematic reviews 1 and 3 and primary source 3 is included in all three systematic reviews. CCA accounts for higher degrees of overlap.
Table 4. A citation matrix. Primary source 1 is included in systematic reviews 1 and 3 and primary source 3 is included in all three systematic reviews. CCA accounts for higher degrees of overlap.
Systematic Review 1 Systematic Review 2 Systematic Review 3
Primary source 1 X X
Primary source 2 X
Primary source 3 X X X
Table 5. CCA scores and the associated overlap interpretation [26].
Table 5. CCA scores and the associated overlap interpretation [26].
CCA (%) Overlap Interpretation
0-5 Slight
6-10 Moderate
11-15 High
>15 Very high

2.5. Informed Consent and Ethical Approval

This umbrella review retrieved data from papers on public databases only. Therefore, informed consent and ethical approval were not required.

3. Results

3.1. PRISMA Flow Diagram

A final search was conducted on PubMed and Scopus on 11 February 2023. In total, 372 records were initially identified and exported to the EndNote X9 citation manager. During the screening phase, 141 duplicates were removed via the in-built Find Duplicate feature of EndNote X9 and additional manual searching for duplicates. During the title and abstract screening, 158 records were excluded according to the inclusion and exclusion criteria. During the Eligibility phase, the full-text of 73 reviews were reviewed and 21 of these reviews were excluded: 9 records did not report data on the outcomes of interest, 4 records did not compare RALS with CLS, full-text was not available for 5 records, 2 records were excluded because of its study type and one record was excluded as it was a duplicate. A full list of the records that were excluded during the full-text review, with the reason(s) for exclusion, is provided in the Appendix (Table A8).
The remaining 52 articles are included in this umbrella review. The inclusion and exclusion process of all articles is schematically represented in the PRISMA Flow Diagram in Figure 1.

3.2. Study Characteristics

The characteristics of all included reviews are listed in Table SP1 (available in the list of Supplementary Materials). In total, 38 out of the 52 records are meta-analyses, 7 records are systematic reviews and 7 are network meta-analyses. Colectomy was the most researched t (22/52 records) and prostatectomy was the least researched (8/52) among the included reviews. Out of the 52 records, a total of 1,288,425 patients were included from 1046 primary sources. In total, 151,599 patients were treated with RALS, and 970,563 patients were treated with CLS. Some reviews included patients treated with open surgery too and five reviews did not provide complete data regarding the number of RALS, CLS, and/or the total amount of patients [27,28,29,30,31]. As a result, the total number of patients is slightly higher than the combined number of patients in the RALS and CLS groups. The year of publication of the primary sources ranged between 1996 and 2022.The citation matrices, listing all the primary sources of the included reviews, are in the list of Supplementary Materials (Table SP2).

3.3. Clinical Outcomes

The results of all five surgical categories are addressed below.

3.3.1. Cholecystectomy

Seven studies on cholecystectomy were included, of which one was a systematic review [32], five were meta-analyses [33,34,35,36,37] and one was a network meta-analysis [38]. The corrected covered area (overlap) of these six studies was 3.7% and is considered to be slight (Table A1). Specific subgroup analyses were conducted for the number of ports or incisions in RALS and CLS in [32,34,35,36,38]. One study [33] conducted both general and subgroup analyses. The quality of all seven studies based on the AMSTAR 2 quality assessment, was considered to be low [32,37] or critically low [33,34,35,36,38]. AMSTAR 2 scores are listed in Table SP3 (available in the list of Supplementary Materials).
In Table 6, quantitative data retrieved from the seven papers are synthesized. It is important to note that the meta-analytic data on blood loss and postoperative complications presented by [37] (indicated with an a in Table 6) was based on a single study only, which precludes the assessment of heterogeneity. Therefore, the (non-)significance of these findings should be interpreted with caution and be considered of limited value.
No significant differences were observed between RALS and CLS cholecystectomy for almost all clinical outcomes. The only significant differences measured were in favour of CLS. The hospitalization costs were measured in three papers, of which all concluded that RALS hospitalization costs are significantly higher compared to CLS hospitalization costs [33,34,35]. The incisional hernia rate was significantly lower in patients treated by CLS compared to RALS [33,34,36]. In one review, the operative time was measured to be significantly longer in RALS procedures compared to CLS [33], but these results were not obtained in two other systematic reviews.
Qualitative data, listed in Table A2, were retrieved from two studies [32,38]. Similar to the quantitative data, the results did not show any differences between RALS and CLS for most of the clinical outcomes. In a network meta-analysis, a ranking of five competing interventions for cholecystectomy (RALS, single-incision CLS, 3-port CLS, 4-port CLS and mini laparoscopy) was formulated (quantitative data from this network meta-analysis was not included, which is further elaborated in the Discussion Section 4.2.10). The ranking of the surgical interventions indicated which approach scored best per clinical outcome. RALS was ranked the highest regarding postoperative pain and length of hospital stay [38]. For postoperative complications and operative time, CLS (3-port and 4-port) ranked highest [38]. In \cite[32] there were longer operative times when patients were treated with RALS compared to CLS.

3.3.2. Colectomy

Twenty three reviews were included on colectomy [30,31,37,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58]. Of the 23 reviews, two were systematic reviews [30,57], eight teen meta-analyses [31,37,39,40,42,43,44,45,46,47,49,50,51,52,53,55,56,58] and three network meta-analyses [41,48,54]. The corrected covered area of the 23 reviews was 2.6% (slight overlap). Furthermore, all studies scored either low or critically low on the AMSTAR 2 quality rating (all AMSTAR 2 Quality Assessment results are available for download in the list of Supplementary Materials). Within colectomy, multiple indications for surgery and surgical procedures exist. Regarding the indications for surgery: thirteen reviews included (colo)rectal cancer surgery studies only [30,31,41,43,44,45,46,47,48,54,55,57,58], two reviews focused on resections indicated by diverticular diseases [39,42] and the other seven reviews included studies related to colectomy for any or multiple indications [37,40,49,50,51,52,53]. As for the surgical procedures themselves: nine studies focused on left or right hemicolectomy [50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58], four on total mesorectal excisions [31,46,47,48], two on complete mesocolic excisions [30,45], three on colorectal resections [41,43,44], two on diverticular resections [39,42], and three reviews on multiple surgical procedures related to the colon [37,40,49].
The quantitative data that were extracted from all (network) meta-analyses can be found in Table 7, Table 8 and Table 9. In Table 7 the clinical outcomes of blood loss, conversion to open surgery rate, hospitalization costs, incisional hernia rate, and intraoperative complication rate are listed. Fifteen studies reported data on blood loss, of which eight studies observed no significant differences between RALS and CLS, but seven studies found significantly less blood loss in colectomies performed with RALS compared to CLS.
Regarding the conversion to open surgery rate, fifteen out of seventeen meta-analyses observed a significantly lower conversion to open surgery rate when patients were treated for colectomy with RALS compared to CLS. The other two meta-analyses observed no significant differences. One meta-analysis included only one primary source for its analysis of this outcome and should therefore be regarded as limited in evidential value (indicated in Table 7 with a c).
All of the reviews (six) that reported on hospitalization costs, noted that the costs of RALS were significantly higher in comparison to CLS. Similar rates for incisional hernia were observed between RALS and CLS in four meta-analyses.
Only one meta-analysis considered the rate of intraoperative complications between RALS and CLS and found no significant differences. However, this finding was based on one primary source only and therefore has limited evidential value (indicated in Table 7 with a c).The quantitative data collected about the postoperative (or overall) complication rate, the length of hospital stay and the operative time are reported in Table 8.
Sixteen meta-analyses reported the postoperative (or overall) complication rate. In twelve out of sixteen reviews, no significant differences in complication rates were observed after colectomy performed by either RALS or CLS. These twelve studies included data from 26,029 patients. Four studies, however, including 76,341 patients, did find a significantly lower complication rate in favour of RALS.
Ten out of eighteen studies that compared and analyzed the length of hospital stay after colectomy by RALS or CLS reported similar outcomes. The other eight meta-analyses found that colectomy performed by RALS resulted in significantly shorter hospital stays.
The operative time of RALS was found to be significantly longer compared to CLS in sixteen meta-analyses. Only two studies observed no significant differences, but both lacked data: one study failed to report how many primary sources and patients were included in their analysis [54] and the other one considered a rather small group of patients [37].
The quantitative data collected on 30-day readmission rate and rate of wound infection can be found in Table 9. None of the four reviews that reported on the 30-day readmission rate found any significant differences between RALS and CLS.
Lastly, eight meta-analyses compared the rates of wound infection after CLS and RALS colectomy. All but one analysis found no significant differences between RALS and CLS. The one study that did find a significantly lower infection rate in favour of RALS, comprised eight primary sources that together included 51,445 patients [50]. These results were obtained in patients undergoing a left hemicolectomy. The same authors conducted a similar analysis with patients undergoing a right hemicolectomy. In this study, covering 7,698 patients, comparable results were obtained in wound infection rates between RALS and CLS colectomy [55].
Qualitative data was retrieved from two systematic reviews [30,57] and one meta-analysis [45]. Although this meta-analysis analyzed clinical outcomes that were not included in this umbrella review, it did systematically review some clinical outcomes that were of interest [45]. These and the findings from [30,57] are summarized in Table A3. Blood loss, incisional hernia rates and length of hospital stay were observed to be less or shorter for colectomies executed with RALS. The operative time was observed to be longer in the case of RALS in two studies. As for the postoperative complication and wound infection rates, comparable results were obtained.

3.3.3. Hysterectomy

Ten reviews reported outcomes related to hysterectomy [29,37,59,60,61,62,63,64,65,66]. Seven reviews were meta-analyses [29,37,60,61,62,63,66], two were network meta-analyses [64,65] and one was a systematic review [59]. All reviews scored either critically low [59,60,61,62,63,64,65,66] or low [37,64,66] on the AMSTAR 2 quality assessment, except for one meta-analysis [29]. This is the only study in which the quality was assessed to be high, having one non-critical and no critical flaws. With the use of a citation matrix, the corrected covered area was calculated to be 2.9% (Table A1), which indicates the existence of only a slight overlap between the primary sources of the included reviews.
Five studies specifically focused on radical hysterectomy procedures [61,63,64,65,66], three studies reviewed hysterectomy in general [29,59,62], and one study focused on single-site hysterectomy [60].
All quantitative data extracted from the included reviews are outlined in Table 10. In general, most studies found no significant differences in any of the outcomes. Seven studies analyzed and compared the blood loss during a hysterectomy performed by either RALS or CLS, four of which reported no significant difference (although some point out a statistically non-significant favour for RALS). Three studies did observe a significantly lower blood loss when hysterectomies were performed by RALS.
Three studies reported the conversion to open surgery rate and none of these reviews found any significant differences. There was little data available regarding hospitalization costs. The only two meta-analyses reporting on hospitalization costs of RALS and CLS hysterectomy, based their analysis on one primary source only [29,37]. Hence, these outcomes should be interpreted with caution (indicated in Table 10 with a d). In [29], they found that the costs of CLS hysterectomy were significantly lower compared to RALS, but [37] did not find any significant differences between RALS and CLS hysterectomy.
The intraoperative complication rate was analyzed by six reviews and none measured any significant differences between RALS and CLS hysterectomy. The results of the postoperative complication rate, which was also defined in six reviews, were mixed. Two studies reported a significant difference in favour of RALS, the other four did not observe any significant difference.
Seven studies documented on the length of hospital stay after RALS or CLS hysterectomy. Four of these reviews noted a significantly shorter hospital stay when patients were operated with RALS compared to CLS. The other three studies did not observe any significant differences between the length of hospital stay after RALS or CLS hysterectomy but did point out that their results were in slight favour of RALS.
All data available on the operation time, 30-day readmission rate and the rate of wound infections were non-significant. Hence, the results between RALS and CLS on these clinical outcomes were comparable.
Qualitative data were extracted from three reviews [59,60,64]. [59] is a systematic review. [60] is a meta-analysis, but it did not analyze the clinical outcomes of interest. However, this study was still included as it systematically reviewed and compared the postoperative complication rates and operative time of CLS and RALS hysterectomy. This qualitative data was included in Table A4. Finally, [64] is a network meta-analysis, which reported data that could not be included in the quantitative table (see also Discussion Section 4.2.10). Therefore, its outcomes were included in Table A4 too.
In one review, blood loss was reported to be less in RALS hysterectomy compared to CLS. RALS was associated with higher hospitalization costs in one review. Two out of three reviews described comparable results in postoperative complication rates between RALS and CLS. However, a third review observed lower postoperative complication rates with RALS.
Regarding the operative time, two out of three reviews found comparable results between RALS and CLS hysterectomy. A third review did find a significantly shorter operative time when patients were treated with CLS hysterectomy. Lastly, one study reported similar lengths of hospital stays between RALS and CLS hysterectomy, and one study reported a shorter length of hospital stay after RALS.

3.3.4. Nephrectomy

Nine systematic reviews and (network) meta-analyses about nephrectomy were included [28,37,67,68,69,70,71,72,73]. Six papers were meta-analyses [37,68,69,70,71,72], two systematic reviews [28,67] and one network meta-analysis [73]. The corrected covered area (an indication of the overlap of primary sources) is 1.4%, which is considered as a slight overlap (Table A1). The quality assessment scores of the nine reviews based on AMSTAR 2 were low for two reviews [37,67] and critically low for seven reviews [28,68,69,70,71,72,73].
Within nephrectomy, multiple surgical procedures and various indications exist. The surgical procedures discussed in the nine included reviews are: radical nephrectomy [67,70], nephroureterectomy [67,68], (living) donor nephrectomy [71,73], partial nephrectomy [67] and nephrectomy in general [28,37,69,72]. Four reviews specifically included primary sources with renal cell carcinoma patients [28,69,70,72], all the other publications did not specify the indication for nephrectomy.
The quantitative data of all nine reviews were summarized in Table 11. Most reviews did not observe a significant difference between RALS nephrectomy and CLS nephrectomy. For blood loss specifically, one study reported significantly less blood loss when nephrectomies were performed by CLS [71]. All other reviews observed no significant differences in blood loss between the two surgical modalities. No significant differences were reported regarding the conversion to open surgery rate and postoperative complication rate either. One study observed significantly higher costs associated with RALS nephrectomy compared to CLS nephrectomy [70]. Regarding the intraoperative complication rate, four out of five reviews did not observe any significant differences between RALS and CLS, but one study [73] did: a significantly lower intraoperative complication rate was observed in CLS nephrectomy compared to RALS nephrectomy.
The length of hospital stay was noted to be comparable between RALS and CLS nephrectomy in four out of six studies. The other two studies reported a significantly shorter hospital stay after RALS nephrectomy [37,70]. It should be noted that the findings of [37] were based on one primary source only and hence these outcomes are of limited value (indicated with an e in Table 10).
Lastly, six reviews collected and analyzed data on operative time. Four out of these six reviews found no significant differences, but two reviews observed a significantly longer operative time when nephrectomy was conducted with the use of RALS [70,71].
As for the qualitative data, the synthesized findings are summarized in Table A5. In terms of blood loss, two reviews have indicated that RALS has been found to be a more favorable option [28,68]. Regarding intraoperative complications, two out of three reviews noted fewer intraoperative complications during RALS [67,68]. Operative time was found to be longer in RALS procedures in one review, but comparable in two others. Two reviews claimed that the length of hospital stay was shorter after RALS nephrectomy [28,68].

3.3.5. Prostatectomy

Eight reviews were included that researched RALS and CLS prostatectomy. This included six meta-analyses [37,59,74,75,76,77] and two systematic reviews [27,67]. The corrected covered area was slight (3.1%). All reviews scored critically low on the AMSTAR quality assessment, except for two reviews that scored low [37,67]. Three meta-analyses specifically examined radical prostatectomy as a treatment for prostate cancer [59,74,75]. Three other meta-analyses focused on simple prostatectomy for the treatment of large benign prostatic hyperplasia [27,76,77]. In two studies, no additional information was provided on the indication of surgery and the specific surgical procedures executed [37,67].
Table 12 contains the quantitative data that was extracted from all the meta-analyses. Among the five studies reporting on blood loss after RALS or CLS prostatectomy, four found no significant difference between the two procedures. However, one study reported that significantly less blood was lost during RALS procedures [59].
Data on the conversion to open surgery rate was analyzed in one meta-analysis [77]. Comparable results were obtained between RALS and CLS conversion rates during prostatectomy. Of the two studies reporting on the intraoperative complication rate, no significant differences were observed.
Regarding the postoperative complication rates, three out of four studies found no significant differences between RALS and CLS. One study investigated minor and major complications separately and found no significant differences between the two procedures in either category [77]. Only one study [75] reported a significantly lower postoperative complication rate in favour of RALS.
The length of hospital stay was assessed in two studies. In both studies, the length of hospital stay was significantly shorter after RALS prostatectomy in comparison with CLS prostatectomy. Lastly, the operative time was reported to be comparable between RALS and CLS in four out of five reviews. One study found a significantly shorter operative time during RALS prostatectomies [59]. It should be noted that one study [37] included only one primary source for its analyses (indicated with an f in Table 12). These outcomes are therefore of limited value.
Table 18 contains the qualitative data extracted from two systematic reviews [27,67]. In these two reviews, one reported no significant differences between RALS and CLS prostatectomy, the other observed less blood loss during RALS prostatectomy. The same applies to the length of hospital stay, one reported no significant differences and the other observed a shorter stay after RALS prostatectomy. Comparable results were obtained regarding the intraoperative complications. Lastly, the operative time was shorter for CLS prostatectomies.

3.4. Summary of Data

All the data that were collected are synthesized in bar charts (Figure 2) and in Table 13. On most of the clinical outcomes of interest, RALS obtained comparable results to CLS. The hospitalization costs of RALS were higher compared to CLS across all but one surgical category and the length of hospital stay was shorter or tends to be shorter when patients were treated by RALS in all but one surgical category. Furthermore, the operative time was in general longer in RALS cases when compared to CLS.
Table 6. All quantitative data extracted from the included studies regarding cholecystectomy. The last column denotes whether the synthesized outcome favours CLS, RALS, or shows no significant differences. This distinction is highlighted using different cell colours: red represents a significant difference in favour of CLS, yellow indicates no significant difference, and green indicates a significant difference in favour of RALS. aThe result of the corresponding meta-analysis is based on one primary source only. Abbreviations: RALS = Robot-assisted laparoscopic surgery, CLS = conventional laparoscopic surgery, RE = random effect model, FE = fixed effect model, CI = confidence interval, SR = single-incision robot surgery, MR = multiple-incision robot surgery, SL = single-incision laparoscopic surgery, ML = multiple-incision laparoscopic surgery, all = both single and multiple incision laparoscopic and robot surgery, OR = Odds Ratio, RR = Risk Ratio, RD = Risk Difference, MD = Mean Difference, N/A = not applicable or available.
Table 6. All quantitative data extracted from the included studies regarding cholecystectomy. The last column denotes whether the synthesized outcome favours CLS, RALS, or shows no significant differences. This distinction is highlighted using different cell colours: red represents a significant difference in favour of CLS, yellow indicates no significant difference, and green indicates a significant difference in favour of RALS. aThe result of the corresponding meta-analysis is based on one primary source only. Abbreviations: RALS = Robot-assisted laparoscopic surgery, CLS = conventional laparoscopic surgery, RE = random effect model, FE = fixed effect model, CI = confidence interval, SR = single-incision robot surgery, MR = multiple-incision robot surgery, SL = single-incision laparoscopic surgery, ML = multiple-incision laparoscopic surgery, all = both single and multiple incision laparoscopic and robot surgery, OR = Odds Ratio, RR = Risk Ratio, RD = Risk Difference, MD = Mean Difference, N/A = not applicable or available.
Blood loss
Author (year) Ref. Subgroup analysis No. studies/participants Participants RALS Participants CLS RE/FE Mean Difference/Odds Ratio
[95%-CI]
Heterogeneity (I2) Favours
Han et al. (2018) [33] all 5/769 442 327 RE MD -0.95 [-3.69; 1.79] 0% None
Roh et al. (2018) [37] all 1/136 83 53 FE MD -2.23 [-49.84; 45.38] N/A Nonea
Sun et al. (2018a) [34] SR vs ML 2/258 129 129 FE OR 1.63 [0.40; 6.56] 0% None
Conversion to open surgery rate
Author (year) Ref. Subgroup analysis No. studies / participants Participants RALS Participants CLS RE / FE Risk Ratio / Odds Ratio
[95%-CI]
Heterogeneity (I2) Favours
Han et al. (2018) [33] all 22/2771 1214 1557 RE RR 0.53 [0.26; 1.07] 36% None
Roh et al. (2018) [37] all 2/146 70 76 FE OR 0.85 [0.18; 4.05] N/A None
Sun et al. (2018a) [34] SR vs ML 6/1537 715 822 FE OR 1.30 [0.71; 2.37] 0% None
Sun et al. (2018b) [35] SR vs SL 5/301 139 162 FE OR 0.52 [0.14; 1.96] 0% None
Hospitalization costs
Author (year) Ref. Subgroup analysis No. studies / participants Participants RALS Participants CLS RE / FE Mean Difference
[95%-CI]
Heterogeneity (I2) Favours
Han et al. (2018) [33] all 6/1176 456 720 RE MD 3246 [2416; 4075] 96% CLS
Sun et al. (2018a) [34] SR vs ML 2/643 177 466 RE MD 3510 [310; 6710] 99% CLS
Sun et al. (2018b) [35] SR vs SL 2/196 89 107 FE MD 3700 [3610; 3790] 0% CLS
Incisional hernia rate
Author (year) Ref. Subgroup analysis No. studies / participants Participants RALS Participants CLS RE / FE Risk Ratio / Odds Ratio / Risk Difference [95%-CI] Heterogeneity (I2) Favours
Han et al. (2018) [33] all 7/1499 676 823 RE RR 3.22 [1.54; 6.76] 0% CLS
Sun et al. (2018a) [34] SR vs ML 4/1381 622 759 FE OR 4.23 [1.87; 9.58] 0% CLS
Wang et al. (2021) [36] SR vs SL 15/916 534 382 FE RD 0.05 [0.02; 0.07] 0% CLS
Intraoperative complication rate
Author (year) Ref. Subgroup analysis No. studies / participants Participants RALS Participants CLS RE / FE Risk Ratio / Odds Ratio
[95%-CI]
Heterogeneity (I2) Favours
Han et al. (2018) [33] All 13/422 211 211 RE RR 0.95 [0.60; 1.50] 2% None
Sun et al. (2018b) [35] SR vs SL 4/219 101 118 FE OR 0.48 [0.17; 1.39] 0% None
Postoperative complication rate
Author (year) Ref. Subgroup analysis No. studies / participants Participants RALS Participants CLS RE / FE Risk Ratio / Odds Ratio / Risk Difference [95%-CI] Heterogeneity (I2) Favours
Han et al. (2018) [33] all 16/1859 817 1042 RE RR 0.78 [0.40; 1.52] 28% None
Roh et al. (2018) [37] all 1/136 83 53 RE OR 1.29 [0.23; 7.31] N/A Nonea
Sun et al. (2018a) [34] SR vs ML 6/1536 714 822 RE OR 1.11 [0.35; 3.51] 76% None
Sun et al. (2018b) [35] SR vs SL 6/633 305 328 FE OR 0.62 [0.21; 1.86] 0% None
Wang et al. (2021) [36] SR vs SL 16/3161 1509 1652 FE RD 0.01 [-0.00; 0.03] 44% None
Length of hospital stay (days)
Author (year) Ref. Subgroup analysis No. studies / participants Participants RALS Participants CLS RE / FE Mean Difference
[95%-CI]
Heterogeneity (I2) Favours
Han et al. (2018) [33] all 17/3514 1602 1912 RE MD -0.20 [-0.49; 0.08] 92% None
Roh et al. (2018) [37] all 3/216 123 93 RE MD 0.07 [-0.28; 0.42] 0% None
Sun et al. (2018a) [34] SR vs ML 4/1441 652 789 RE MD -0.02 [-0.60; 0.57] 93% None
Sun et al. (2018b) [35] SR vs SL 4/521 247 274 FE MD -0.01 [-0.21; 0.19] 0% None
Operative time (min)
Author (year) Ref. Subgroup analysis No. studies / participants Participants RALS Participants CLS RE / FE Mean Difference
[95%-CI]
Heterogeneity (I2) Favours
Han et al. (2018) [33] all 21/3640 1653 1987 RE MD 13.14 [4.97; 21.50] 94% CLS
Roh et al. (2018) [37] all 4/302 163 139 RE MD 10.09 [-6.04; 26.21] 85% None
Sun et al. (2018a) [34] SR vs ML 2/697 424 273 FE MD -3.06 [-7.61; 1.49] 0% None
Sun et al. (2018b) [35] SR vs SL 5/551 267 284 RE MD 17.32 [-8.93; 43.57] 97% None
30-day readmission rate
Author (year) Ref. Subgroup analysis No. studies / participants Participants RALS Participants CLS RE / FE Risk Ratio / Odds Ratio
[95%-CI]
Heterogeneity (I2) Favours
Han et al. (2018) [33] all 6/1420 811 609 RE RR 1.21 [0.62; 2.35] 0% None
Sun et al. (2018b) [35] SR vs SL 3/412 211 201 FE OR 0.70 [0.09; 5.63] 0% None
Wound infection rate
Author (year) Ref. Subgroup analysis No. studies / participants Participants RALS Participants CLS RE / FE Odds Ratio
[95%-CI]
Heterogeneity (I2) Favours
Sun et al. (2018a) [34] SR vs ML 4/1319 606 713 FE OR 1.92 [0.86; 4.32] 18% None
Table 7. All quantitative data extracted from the included meta-analyses regarding colectomy (1/3). The last column denotes whether the synthesized outcome favours CLS, RALS, or shows no significant differences. This distinction is highlighted using different cell colours: red represents a significant difference in favour of CLS, yellow indicates no significant difference, and green indicates a significant difference in favour of RALS. cThe result of the corresponding meta-analysis is based on one primary source only. Abbreviations: RALS = Robot-assisted laparoscopic surgery, CLS = conventional laparoscopic surgery, RE = random effect model, FE = fixed effect model, CMH = Cochran-Mantel-Haenszel method, CI = confidence interval, OR = Odds Ratio, RR = Risk Ratio, MD = Mean Difference, SMD = Standardized Mean Difference, N/A = not applicable or available.
Table 7. All quantitative data extracted from the included meta-analyses regarding colectomy (1/3). The last column denotes whether the synthesized outcome favours CLS, RALS, or shows no significant differences. This distinction is highlighted using different cell colours: red represents a significant difference in favour of CLS, yellow indicates no significant difference, and green indicates a significant difference in favour of RALS. cThe result of the corresponding meta-analysis is based on one primary source only. Abbreviations: RALS = Robot-assisted laparoscopic surgery, CLS = conventional laparoscopic surgery, RE = random effect model, FE = fixed effect model, CMH = Cochran-Mantel-Haenszel method, CI = confidence interval, OR = Odds Ratio, RR = Risk Ratio, MD = Mean Difference, SMD = Standardized Mean Difference, N/A = not applicable or available.
Blood loss
Author (year) Ref. Surgical specifications No. studies / participants Participants RALS Participants CLS RE / FE (Standardized) Mean Difference
[95%-CI]
Heterogeneity (I2) Favours
Bianchi et al. (2022) [40] proctocolectomy, proctectomy 3/194 105 89 RE MD 57.99 [-65.20; 181.17] 81% None
Sheng et al. (2018) [41] - 40/12825 129 6749 RE MD -21.12 [-175.07; 33.17] N/A None
Cuk et al. (2022) [43] - 7/635 218 417 RE MD -0.33 [-16.54; 15.88] 75% None
Flynn et al. (2022) [46] total mesorectal excision 30/- N/A N/A RE SMD -0.12 [-0.32; 0.08] 93% None
Gavriilidis et al. (2020) [47] total mesorectal excision 16/3210 N/A N/A RE MD 10.48 [-15.50; 36.46] 84% None
Jones et al. (2018) [31] total mesorectal excision 18/3002 1393 1609 RE SMD -0.10 [-0.26; 0.05] 74% None
Roh et al. (2018) [37] - 2/136 64 72 FE MD -20.10 [-33.44; -6.75] 0% RALS
Solaini et al. (2022) [50] left hemicolectomy 3/411 118 293 RE MD -19.77 [-39.10; -0.43] 79% RALS
Genova et al. (2021) [51] right hemicolectomy 15/1413 536 877 RE MD -12.14 [-19.08; -5.20] 18% RALS
Lauka et al. (2020) [52] right hemicolectomy 13/1379 523 856 RE MD -8.68 [-17.27; -0.08] 46% RALS
Ma et al. (2019) [53] right hemicolectomy 8/694 234 460 FE MD -16.89 [-24.80; -8.98] 35% RALS
Rausa et al. (2019) [54] right hemicolectomy -/- N/A N/A RE MD 0.40 [-28.00; 28.00] 89% None
Solaini et al. (2018) [55] right hemicolectomy 8/888 N/A N/A N/A SMD -0.19 [-0.51; 0.12] 77% None
Tschann et al. (2022) [56] right hemicolectomy 12/- N/A N/A RE MD -10.03 [-18.45; -1.61] 65% RALS
Zhu et al. (2021) [58] right hemicolectomy 5/454 194 260 FE MD -13.43 [-20.65; -6.21] 33% RALS
Conversion to open surgery rate
Author (year) Ref. Surgical specifications No. studies / participants Participants RALS Participants CLS RE / FE / CMH Risk Ratio / Odds Ratio
[95%-CI]
Heterogeneity (I2) Favours
Larkins et al. (2022) [39] diverticular resection 8/13190 3182 10008 RE OR 0.57 [0.49; 0.66] 0% RALS
Bianchi et al. (2022) [40] sub(total) colectomy 3/10042 364 9678 RE OR 0.17 [0.04; 0.82] 38% RALS
Bianchi et al. (2022) [40] proctocolectomy, proctectomy 4/240 128 112 RE OR 0.45 [0.09; 2.26] 0% None
Giuliani et al. (2022) [42] - 9/3927 1922 2005 FE OR 0.56 [0.45; 0.70] 31% RALS
Cuk et al. (2022) [43] - 17/10906 1554 9352 FE OR 0.31 [0.23; 0.41] 41% RALS
Flynn et al. (2022) [46] total mesorectal excision 44/9799 4476 5323 CMH OR 0.34 [0.27; 0.43] 0% RALS
Gavriilidis et al. (2020) [47] total mesorectal excision 17/3381 N/A N/A FE OR 0.26 [0.17; 0.38] 0% RALS
Jones et al. (2018) [31] total mesorectal excision 24/4961 2379 2582 RE OR 0.40 [0.29; 0.55] 0% RALS
Roh et al. (2018) [37] - 4/226 110 116 FE OR 0.25 [0.07; 0.91] 24% RALS
Solaini et al. (2022) [50] left hemicolectomy 9/52058 13281 38777 RE RR 0.53 [0.50; 0.57] 0% RALS
Genova et al. (2021) [51] right hemicolectomy 28/13057 1777 11280 RE OR 0.46 [0.34; -0.63] 0% RALS
Lauka et al. (2020) [52] right hemicolectomy 21/9324 1519 7805 RE RR 0.47 [0.27; 0.81] 33% RALS
Ma et al. (2019) [53] right hemicolectomy 9/800 336 464 FE OR 0.34 [0.15; 0.75] 0% RALS
Rausa et al. (2019) [54] right hemicolectomy -/- N/A N/A RE RR 1.70 [0.53; 5.90] 23% None
Solaini et al. (2018) [55] right hemicolectomy 10/7843 N/A N/A N/A RR 0.59 [0.38; 0.91] 5% RALS
Tschann et al. (2022) [56] right hemicolectomy 19/- N/A N/A RE OR 0.65 [0.46; 0.93] 14% RALS
Zhu et al. (2021) [58] right hemicolectomy 9/1084 488 596 FE OR 0.30 [0.17; 0.54] 43% RALS
Hospitalization costs
Author (year) Ref. Surgical specifications No. studies / participants Participants RALS Participants CLS RE / FE (Standardized) Mean Difference
[95%-CI]
Heterogeneity (I2) Favours
Roh et al. (2018) [37] - 1/70 35 35 RE MD 1.92 [1.09; 2.74] N/A CLSc
Genova et al. (2021) [51] right hemicolectomy 9/8660 875 7785 RE MD 2589.46 [972.72; 4206.21] 94% CLS
Lauka et al. (2020) [52] right hemicolectomy 6/528 206 322 RE MD 3185.50 [720.98; 5650.02] 95% CLS
Rausa et al. (2019) [54] right hemicolectomy 4/- N/A N/A RE SMD 0.60 [0.33; 0.86] 66% CLS
Solaini et al. (2018) [55] right hemicolectomy 5/659 N/A N/A N/A SMD 0.52 [0.04; 1.00] 84% CLS
Tschann et al. (2022) [56] right hemicolectomy 5/- N/A N/A RE MD 2660 [150; 5170] 96% CLS
Incisional hernia rate
Author (year) Ref. Surgical specifications No. studies / participants Participants RALS Participants CLS RE / FE Risk Ratio / Odds Ratio
[95%-CI]
Heterogeneity (I2) Favours
Ravindra et al. (2022) [44] - 2/684 342 342 RE RR 0.93 [0.05; 17.20] 60% None
Genova et al. (2021) [51] right hemicolectomy 6/985 346 639 RE OR 0.63 [0.33; 1.19] 0% None
Solaini et al. (2018) [55] right hemicolectomy 5/708 N/A N/A N/A RR 0.38 [0.07; 2.50] 0% None
Tschann et al. (2022) [56] right hemicolectomy 3/- N/A N/A RE OR 0.66 [0.35; 1.28] 0% None
Intraoperative complication rate
Author (year) Ref. Surgical specifications No. studies / participants Participants RALS Participants CLS RE / FE Odds Ratio
[95%-CI]
Heterogeneity (I2) Favours
Roh et al. (2018) [37] - 1/34 18 16 FE OR 4.29 [0.43; 43.14] N/A Nonec
Table 8. All quantitative data extracted from the included meta-analyses regarding colectomy (2/3). The last column denotes whether the synthesized outcome favours CLS, RALS, or shows no significant differences. This distinction is highlighted using different cell colours: red represents a significant difference in favour of CLS, yellow indicates no significant difference, and green indicates a significant difference in favour of RALS. Abbreviations: RALS = Robot-assisted laparoscopic surgery, CLS = conventional laparoscopic surgery, RE = random effect model, FE = fixed effect model, CMH = Cochran-Mantel-Haenszel method, CI = confidence interval, OR = Odds Ratio, RR = Risk Ratio, HG = Hedge’s G, MD = Mean Difference, SMD = Standardized Mean Difference, N/A = not applicable or available.
Table 8. All quantitative data extracted from the included meta-analyses regarding colectomy (2/3). The last column denotes whether the synthesized outcome favours CLS, RALS, or shows no significant differences. This distinction is highlighted using different cell colours: red represents a significant difference in favour of CLS, yellow indicates no significant difference, and green indicates a significant difference in favour of RALS. Abbreviations: RALS = Robot-assisted laparoscopic surgery, CLS = conventional laparoscopic surgery, RE = random effect model, FE = fixed effect model, CMH = Cochran-Mantel-Haenszel method, CI = confidence interval, OR = Odds Ratio, RR = Risk Ratio, HG = Hedge’s G, MD = Mean Difference, SMD = Standardized Mean Difference, N/A = not applicable or available.
Postoperative complication rate
Author (year) Ref. Surgical specifications No. studies / participants Participants RALS Participants CLS RE / FE / CMH Risk Ratio / Odds Ratio
[95%-CI]
Heterogeneity (I2) Favours
Larkins et al. (2022) [39] diverticular resection 6/1384 663 721 RE OR 0.74 [0.49; 1.13] 0% None
Bianchi et al. (2022) [40] (sub)total colectomy 3/10042 364 9678 RE OR 0.86 [0.54; 1.38] 19% None
Bianchi et al. (2022) [40] proctocolectomy, proctectomy 5/345 161 184 RE OR 0.66 [0.22; 1.73] 0% None
Sheng et al. (2018) [41] - 40/12825 129 6749 RE OR 0.79 [0.28; 2.13] N/A None
Giuliani et al. (2022) [42] - 8/1453 686 767 FE OR 0.76 [0.58; 1.01] 0% None
Cuk et al. (2022) [43] - 20/13799 1740 12059 FE OR 0.85 [0.73; 1.00] 10% RALS
Flynn et al. (2022) [46] total mesorectal excision 43/9520 4317 5203 CMH OR 0.84 [0.76; 0.92] 47% RALS
Jones et al. (2018) [31] total mesorectal excision 21/4833 2315 2518 RE OR 0.92 [0.75; 1.12] 39% None
Rausa et al. (2019) [48] total mesorectal excision 22/- N/A N/A RE RR 1.10 [0.91; 1.30] 0% None
Flynn et al. (2021) [49] proctocolectomy with IPAA 4/240 128 112 CMH OR 0.65 [0.38; 1.12] 0% None
Solaini et al. (2022) [50] left hemicolectomy 10/52061 13330 38731 RE RR 0.86 [0.83; 0.90] 0% RALS
Lauka et al. (2020) [52] right hemicolectomy 16/- N/A N/A RE RR 0.91 [0.80; 1.04] 0% None
Ma et al. (2019) [53] right hemicolectomy 11/961 402 559 FE OR 0.73 [0.52; 1.01] 1% RALS
Rausa et al. (2019) [54] right hemicolectomy -/- N/A N/A RE RR 1.00 [0.66; 1.50] 20% None
Solaini et al. (2018) [55] right hemicolectomy 10/7843 N/A N/A N/A RR 0.95 [0.50; 1.11] 0% None
Zhu et al. (2021) [58] right hemicolectomy 5/854 383 471 FE OR 0.83 [0.60; 1.14] 0% None
Length of hospital stay (days)
Author (year) Ref. Surgical specifications No. studies / participants Participants RALS Participants CLS RE / FE (Standardized) Mean Difference
[95%-CI]
Heterogeneity (I2) Favours
Bianchi et al. (2022) [40] (sub)total colectomy 2/102 38 64 RE MD -1.86 [-3.99; 0.26] 0% None
Bianchi et al. (2022) [40] proctocolectomy, proctectomy 4/299 138 161 RE MD -0.13 [-1.80; 2.06] 70% None
Sheng et al. (2018) [41] - 40/12825 129 6749 RE MD -0.34 [-2.93; 2.21] N/A None
Giuliani et al. (2022) [42] - 7/1426 683 743 FE SMD -0.21 [-0.32; -0.11] 45% RALS
Cuk et al. (2022) [43] - 17/4626 981 3645 RE MD -0.58 [-1.37; 0.21] 91% None
Ravindra et al. (2022) [44] - 12/1973 872 1101 FE SMD -0.10 [-0.19; -0.01] 0% RALS
Flynn et al. (2022) [46] total mesorectal excision 39/- N/A N/A RE SMD -0.22 [-0.33; -0.11] 83% RALS
Gavriilidis et al. (2020) [47] total mesorectal excision 23/4509 N/A N/A RE MD -0.58 [-1.24; 0.09] 68% None
Jones et al. (2018) [31] total mesorectal excision 24/5010 2409 2601 RE SMD -0.15 [-0.27; -0.03] 74% RALS
Roh et al. (2018) [37] - 4/226 110 116 RE MD -0.54 [-2.16; 1.08] 54% None
Solaini et al. (2022) [50] left hemicolectomy 9/52333 13378 38955 RE MD -0.28 [-0.63; 0.06] 89% None
Genova et al. (2021) [51] right hemicolectomy 34/16010 2059 13951 RE MD -0.50 [-0.85; -0.15] 58% RALS
Lauka et al. (2020) [52] right hemicolectomy 22/4945 1218 3727 RE MD -0.60 [-1.01; -0.19] 64% RALS
Ma et al. (2019) [53] right hemicolectomy 10/7535 534 7001 RE MD -0.61 [-1.15; -0.06] 52% RALS
Rausa et al. (2019) [54] right hemicolectomy -/- N/A N/A RE MD 2.90 [-0.70; 6.50] 80% None
Solaini et al. (2018) [55] right hemicolectomy 10/7968 N/A N/A N/A SMD -0.09 [-0.30; 0.06] 67% None
Tschann et al. (2022) [56] right hemicolectomy 20/- N/A N/A RE MD -0.84 [-1.38; -0.29] 87% RALS
Zhu et al. (2021) [58] right hemicolectomy 4/442 188 254 FE MD -0.23 [-0.73; 0.28] 0% None
Operative time (min)
Author (year) Ref. Surgical specifications No. studies / participants Participants RALS Participants CLS RE / FE (Standardized) Mean Difference / Hedge’s G [95%-CI] Heterogeneity (I2) Favours
Larkins et al. (2022) [39] diverticular resection 6/3675 1812 1863 RE HG 0.43 [0.04; 0.81] 95% CLS
Bianchi et al. (2022) [40] (sub)total colectomy 2/102 38 64 RE MD 104.64 [18.42; 190.87] 58% CLS
Bianchi et al. (2022) [40] proctocolectomy, proctectomy 4/299 138 161 RE MD 38.88 [18.70; 59.06] 36% CLS
Sheng et al. (2018) [41] - 40/12825 129 6749 RE MD 65.69 [38.01; 94.10] N/A CLS
Giuliani et al. (2022) [42] - 8/1453 686 767 FE SMD 0.49 [0.38; 0.60] 94% CLS
Cuk et al. (2022) [43] - 19/5184 1229 3955 RE MD 42.99 [28.37; 57.60] 97% CLS
Flynn et al. (2022) [46] total mesorectal excision 41/- N/A N/A RE SMD 0.82 [0.60; 1.04] 96% CLS
Gavriilidis et al. (2020) [47] total mesorectal excision 26/4734 N/A N/A RE MD 50.35 [31.70; 70.69] 97% CLS
Jones et al. (2018) [31] total mesorectal excision 27/5449 2601 2848 RE SMD 0.65 [0.43; 0.87] 93% CLS
Roh et al. (2018) [37] - 4/226 110 116 RE MD 23.83 [-11.87; 59.53] 94% None
Solaini et al. (2022) [50] left hemicolectomy 10/52439 13438 39001 RE MD 39.08 [17.26; 60.91] 97% CLS
Genova et al. (2021) [51] right hemicolectomy 35/16292 2178 14114 RE MD 56.43 [45.43; 67.43] 91% CLS
Lauka et al. (2020) [52] right hemicolectomy 22/11664 1523 10141 RE MD 45.36 [31.75; 58.97] 95% CLS
Ma et al. (2019) [53] right hemicolectomy 12/7740 656 7084 RE MD 43.60 [26.71; 60.48] 92% CLS
Rausa et al. (2019) [54] right hemicolectomy -/- N/A N/A RE MD -24.00 [-70.00; 21.00] 90% None
Solaini et al. (2018) [55] right hemicolectomy 11/8257 869 7388 N/A SMD 0.99 [0.60; 1.40] 95% CLS
Tschann et al. (2022) [56] right hemicolectomy 22/- N/A N/A RE MD 42.01 [32.96; 51.06] 89% CLS
Zhu et al. (2021) [58] right hemicolectomy 6/522 255 267 RE MD 65.20 [53.40; 77.01] 55% CLS
Table 9. All quantitative data extracted from the included meta-analyses regarding colectomy (3/3). The last column denotes whether the synthesized outcome favours CLS, RALS, or shows no significant differences. This distinction is highlighted using different cell colours: red represents a significant difference in favour of CLS, yellow indicates no significant difference, and green indicates a significant difference in favour of RALS. Abbreviations: RALS = Robot-assisted laparoscopic surgery, CLS = conventional laparoscopic surgery, RE = random effect model, FE = fixed effect model, CMH = Cochran-Mantel-Haenszel method, CI = confidence interval, OR = Odds Ratio, RR = Risk Ratio, HG = Hedge’s G, MD = Mean Difference, SMD = Standardized Mean Difference, N/A = not applicable or available.
Table 9. All quantitative data extracted from the included meta-analyses regarding colectomy (3/3). The last column denotes whether the synthesized outcome favours CLS, RALS, or shows no significant differences. This distinction is highlighted using different cell colours: red represents a significant difference in favour of CLS, yellow indicates no significant difference, and green indicates a significant difference in favour of RALS. Abbreviations: RALS = Robot-assisted laparoscopic surgery, CLS = conventional laparoscopic surgery, RE = random effect model, FE = fixed effect model, CMH = Cochran-Mantel-Haenszel method, CI = confidence interval, OR = Odds Ratio, RR = Risk Ratio, HG = Hedge’s G, MD = Mean Difference, SMD = Standardized Mean Difference, N/A = not applicable or available.
30-day readmission rate
Author (year) Ref. Surgical specifications No. studies / participants Participants RALS Participants CLS RE / FE / CMH Risk Ratio / Odds Ratio
[95%-CI]
Heterogeneity (I2) Favours
Ravindra et al. (2022) [44] - 7/797 327 470 FE RR 0.89 [0.50; 1.60] 6% None
Gavriilidis et al. (2020) [47] total mesorectal excision 4/508 N/A N/A FE OR 1.17 [0.54; 2.56] 68% None
Flynn et al. (2021) [49] proctocolectomy with IPAA 3/207 112 95 CMH OR 0.73 [0.35; 1.55] 0% None
Genova et al. (2021) [51] right hemicolectomy 12/8691 1072 7619 RE OR 0.98 [0.53; 1.82] 38% None
Wound infection rate
Author (year) Ref. Surgical specifications No. studies / participants Participants RALS Participants CLS RE / FE Risk Ratio / Odds Ratio
[95%-CI]
Heterogeneity (I2) Favours
Sheng et al. (2018) [41] - 40/12825 129 6749 RE OR 1.09 [0.11; 8.45] N/A None
Cuk et al. (2022) [43] - 15/4598 940 3658 FE OR 0.81 [0.55; 1.20] 0% None
Ravindra et al. (2022) [44] - 11/1796 822 974 FE RR 1.00 [0.65; 1.53] 0% None
Rausa et al. (2019) [48] total mesorectal excision 17/- N/A N/A RE RR 1.50 [0.86; 2.60] 0% None
Solaini et al. (2022) [50] left hemicolectomy 8/51445 13061 38384 RE RR 0.78 [0.70; 0.87] 0% RALS
Solaini et al. (2018) [55] right hemicolectomy 8/7698 N/A N/A N/A RR 0.67 [0.42; 1.11] 0% None
Tschann et al. (2022) [56] right hemicolectomy 16/- N/A N/A RE OR 0.87 [0.64; 1.19] 0% None
Zhu et al. (2021) [58] right hemicolectomy 5/709 329 380 FE OR 0.65 [0.34; 1.25] 0% None
Table 10. All quantitative data extracted from the included meta-analyses regarding hysterectomy. The last column denotes whether the synthesized outcome favours CLS, RALS, or shows no significant differences. This distinction is highlighted using different cell colours: red represents a significant difference in favour of CLS, yellow indicates no significant difference, and green indicates a significant difference in favour of RALS. dThe result of the corresponding meta-analysis is based on one primary source only. Abbreviations: RALS = Robot-assisted laparoscopic surgery, CLS = conventional laparoscopic surgery, RE = random effect model, FE = fixed effect model, OR = Odds Ratio, RR = Risk Ratio, MD = Mean Difference, N/A = not applicable or available.
Table 10. All quantitative data extracted from the included meta-analyses regarding hysterectomy. The last column denotes whether the synthesized outcome favours CLS, RALS, or shows no significant differences. This distinction is highlighted using different cell colours: red represents a significant difference in favour of CLS, yellow indicates no significant difference, and green indicates a significant difference in favour of RALS. dThe result of the corresponding meta-analysis is based on one primary source only. Abbreviations: RALS = Robot-assisted laparoscopic surgery, CLS = conventional laparoscopic surgery, RE = random effect model, FE = fixed effect model, OR = Odds Ratio, RR = Risk Ratio, MD = Mean Difference, N/A = not applicable or available.
Blood loss
Author (year) Ref. Surgical specifications No. studies / participants Participants RALS Participants CLS RE / FE Mean Difference
[95%-CI]
Heterogeneity (I2) Favours
Prodromidou et al. (2020) [60] single-site hysterectomy 5/287 125 162 RE MD -10.84 [-20.35; -1.32] 55% RALS
Kampers et al. (2022) [61] radical hysterectomy 5/343 139 204 RE MD -30.89 [-114.46; 52.69] - None
Marchand et al. (2021) [62] - 2/196 111 85 FE MD -85.27 [-124.09; -46.45] 0% RALS
Zhang et al. (2019) [63] radical hysterectomy 8/640 283 357 RE MD -22.25 [-81.38; 36.87] 89% None
Jin et al. (2018) [65] radical hysterectomy 5/- N/A N/A RE MD -40.39 [-117.75; 35.97] 96% None
Lawrie et al. (2019) [29] - 1/95 47 48 RE MD 7.00 [-18.26; 32.26] N/A Noned
Roh et al. (2018) [37] - 5/478 235 243 FE MD -5.57 [-8.81; -2.32] 14% RALS
Conversion to open surgery rate
Author (year) Ref. Surgical specifications No. studies / participants Participants RALS Participants CLS RE / FE Risk Ratio / Odds Ratio
[95%-CI]
Heterogeneity (I2) Favours
Zhang et al. (2019) [63] radical hysterectomy 3/176 98 78 RE OR 0.66 [0.09; 4.67] 30% None
Lawrie et al. (2019) [29] - 3/269 134 135 RE RR 1.17 [0.24; 5.77] 0% None
Roh et al. (2018) [37] - 4/368 184 184 FE OR 0.46 [0.15; 1.44] 33% None
Hospitalization costs
Author (year) Ref. Surgical specifications No. studies / participants Participants RALS Participants CLS RE / FE Mean Difference
[95%-CI]
Heterogeneity (I2) Favours
Lawrie et al. (2019) [29] - 1/97 61 36 RE MD 1564.00 [1079.57; 2048.43] N/A CLSd
Roh et al. (2018) [37] - 1/74 38 36 RE MD 0.09 [-0.43; 0.61] N/A Noned
Intraoperative complication rate
Author (year) Ref. Surgical specifications No. studies / participants Participants RALS Participants CLS RE / FE Risk Ratio / Odds Ratio
[95%-CI]
Heterogeneity (I2) Favours
Marchand et al. (2021) [62] - 4/708 359 349 RE RR 1.15 [0.30; 4.35] 36% None
Zhang et al. (2019) [63] radical hysterectomy 7/588 249 339 RE OR 1.17 [0.44; 3.10] 0% None
Jin et al. (2018) [65] radical hysterectomy 3/- N/A N/A FE OR 0.83 [0.16; 4.34] 63% None
Hwang et al. (2020) [66] radical hysterectomy 23/2855 986 1869 FE OR 0.86 [0.48; 1.55] 0% None
Lawrie et al. (2019) [29] - 5/487 256 231 RE RR 1.05 [0.31; 3.56] 28% None
Roh et al. (2018) [37] - 3/316 158 158 FE OR 1.11 [0.48; 2.53] 48% None
Postoperative complication rate
Author (year) Ref. Surgical specifications No. studies / participants Participants RALS Participants CLS RE / FE Risk Ratio / Odds Ratio
[95%-CI]
Heterogeneity (I2) Favours
Marchand et al. (2021) [62] - 4/708 359 349 RE RR 0.93 [0.50; 1.75] 59% None
Zhang et al. (2019) [63] radical hysterectomy 9/678 305 373 RE OR 0.66 [0.39; 1.12] 31% None
Jin et al. (2018) [65] radical hysterectomy 2/- N/A N/A FE OR 0.42 [0.20; 0.87] 0% RALS
Hwang et al. (2020) [66] radical hysterectomy 23/2855 986 1869 FE OR 0.94 [0.64; 1.38] 0% None
Lawrie et al. (2019) [29] - 5/533 291 242 RE RR 0.82 [0.42; 1.59] 51% None
Roh et al. (2018) [37] - 3/316 158 158 RE OR 0.96 [0.28; 3.25] 72% None
Length of hospital stay (days)
Author (year) Ref. Surgical specifications No. studies / participants Participants RALS Participants CLS RE / FE Mean Difference
[95%-CI]
Heterogeneity (I2) Favours
Prodromidou et al. (2020) [60] single-site hysterectomy 4/328 119 209 RE MD -0.32 [-0.44; -0.19] 0% RALS
Kampers et al. (2022) [61] radical hysterectomy 5/343 139 204 RE MD -0.96 [-2.33; 0.41] - None
Marchand et al. (2021) [62] - 3/246 136 110 RE MD -1.20 [-2.01; -0.38] 91% RALS
Zhang et al. (2019) [63] radical hysterectomy 9/678 305 373 RE MD -0.24 [-1.33; 0.85] 87% None
Jin et al. (2018) [65] radical hysterectomy 4/- N/A N/A RE MD -1.01 [-2.82; 0.80] 92% None
Lawrie et al. (2019) [29] - 2/192 108 84 RE MD -0.30 [-0.53; -0.07] 0% RALS
Roh et al. (2018) [37] - 5/425 212 213 RE MD -0.56 [-1.04; -0.09] 73% RALS
Operative time (min)
Author (year) Ref. Surgical specifications No. studies / participants Participants RALS Participants CLS RE / FE Mean Difference
[95%-CI]
Heterogeneity (I2) Favours
Kampers et al. (2022) [61] radical hysterectomy 5/343 139 204 RE MD 30.84 [-0.72; 62.40] - None
Zhang et al. (2019) [63] radical hysterectomy 9/678 305 373 RE MD 18.10 [-14.94; 51.13] 93% None
Jin et al. (2018) [65] radical hysterectomy 5/- N/A N/A RE MD -8.24 [-61.56; 45.07] 97% None
Lawrie et al. (2019) [29] - 2/148 73 75 RE MD 41.18 [-6.17; 88.53] 80% None
Roh et al. (2018) [37] - 5/410 205 205 RE MD -1.24 [-32.57; 30.09] 95% None
30-day readmission rate
Author (year) Ref. Surgical specifications No. studies / participants Participants RALS Participants CLS RE / FE Risk Ratio
[95%-CI]
Heterogeneity (I2) Favours
Lawrie et al. (2019) [29] - 2/220 122 98 RE RR 0.46 [0.14; 1.48] 0% None
Wound infection rate
Author (year) Ref. Surgical specifications No. studies / participants Participants RALS Participants CLS RE / FE Risk Ratio
[95%-CI]
Heterogeneity (I2) Favours
Marchand et al. (2021) [62] - 3/340 183 157 FE RR 1.43 [0.50; 4.00] 0% None
Lawrie et al. (2019) [29] - 4/367 195 172 RE RR 0.62 [0.13; 2.88] 2% None
Table 11. All quantitative data extracted from the included meta-analyses regarding nephrectomy. The last column denotes whether the synthesized outcome favours CLS, RALS, or shows no significant differences. This distinction is highlighted using different cell colours: red represents a significant difference in favour of CLS, yellow indicates no significant difference, and green indicates a significant difference in favour of RALS. eThe result of the corresponding meta-analysis is based on one primary source only. Abbreviations: RALS = Robot-assisted laparoscopic surgery, CLS = conventional laparoscopic surgery, RE = random effect model, FE = fixed effect model, CI = confidence interval, OR = Odds Ratio, MD = Mean Difference, SMD = Standardized Mean Difference, N/A = not applicable or available.
Table 11. All quantitative data extracted from the included meta-analyses regarding nephrectomy. The last column denotes whether the synthesized outcome favours CLS, RALS, or shows no significant differences. This distinction is highlighted using different cell colours: red represents a significant difference in favour of CLS, yellow indicates no significant difference, and green indicates a significant difference in favour of RALS. eThe result of the corresponding meta-analysis is based on one primary source only. Abbreviations: RALS = Robot-assisted laparoscopic surgery, CLS = conventional laparoscopic surgery, RE = random effect model, FE = fixed effect model, CI = confidence interval, OR = Odds Ratio, MD = Mean Difference, SMD = Standardized Mean Difference, N/A = not applicable or available.
Blood loss
Author (year) Ref. Surgical specifications No. studies / participants Participants RALS Participants CLS RE / FE Mean Difference
[95%-CI]
Heterogeneity (I2) Favours
Li et al. (2020) [69] - 6/1372 532 840 RE MD 1.83 [-18.61; 22.27] 74% None
Crocerossa et al. (2021) [70] radical nephrectomy 5/1135 511 624 RE MD 2.18 [-26.69; 31.04] 84% None
Wang et al. (2019) [71] donor nephrectomy 4/324 130 194 FE MD 28.30 [10.24; 46.37] 0% CLS
Sharma et al. (2022) [72] partial nephrectomy 5/969 N/A N/A RE MD -16.98 [-52.03; 18.08] 80% None
Xiao et al. (2020) [73] donor nephrectomy -/- N/A N/A N/A MD 2.60 [-52.57; 55.09] N/A None
Conversion to open surgery rate
Author (year) Ref. Surgical specifications No. studies / participants Participants RALS Participants CLS RE / FE Odds Ratio
[95%-CI]
Heterogeneity (I2) Favours
Li et al. (2020) [69] - 4/1334 516 813 RE OR 2.67 [0.69; 10.33] 51% None
Wang et al. (2019) [71] donor nephrectomy 2/190 96 94 RE OR 0.57 [0.11; 2.93] 0% None
Hospitalization costs
Author (year) Ref. Surgical specifications No. studies / participants Participants RALS Participants CLS RE / FE Mean Difference
[95%-CI]
Heterogeneity (I2) Favours
Crocerossa et al. (2021) [70] radical nephrectomy 4/50990 13296 37694 RE MD 4.70 [3.58; 5.82] 67% CLS
Intraoperative complication rate
Author (year) Ref. Surgical specifications No. studies / participants Participants RALS Participants CLS RE / FE Odds Ratio
[95%-CI]
Heterogeneity (I2) Favours
Li et al. (2020) [69] - 4/- N/A N/A RE OR 1.13 [0.61; 2.12] 51% None
Crocerossa et al. (2021) [70] radical nephrectomy 4/7138 5421 1717 RE OR 1.01 [0.17; 6.03] 95% None
Sharma et al. (2022) [72] partial nephrectomy 3/- N/A N/A FE OR 0.57 [0.27; 1.22] 0% None
Xiao et al. (2020) [73] donor nephrectomy -/- N/A N/A N/A OR 22.5 [1.59; 630.10] N/A CLS
Postoperative complication rate
Author (year) Ref. Surgical specifications No. studies / participants Participants RALS Participants CLS RE / FE Odds Ratio
[95%-CI]
Heterogeneity (I2) Favours
Li et al. (2020) [69] - 6/- N/A N/A FE OR 1.07 [0.68; 1.67] 0% None
Crocerossa et al. (2021) [70] radical nephrectomy 7/33397 10617 22780 RE OR 0.93 [0.70; 1.23] 83% None
Wang et al. (2019) [71] donor nephrectomy 5/369 145 224 FE OR 1.12 [0.52; 2.44] 0% None
Xiao et al. (2020) [73] donor nephrectomy -/- N/A N/A N/A OR 1.15 [0.44; 3.07] N/A None
Length of hospital stay (days)
Author (year) Ref. Surgical specifications No. studies / participants Participants RALS Participants CLS RE / FE Mean Difference
[95%-CI]
Heterogeneity (I2) Favours
Li et al. (2020) [69] - 7/1832 762 1070 RE MD -0.34 [-0.68; -0.00] 85% None
Crocerossa et al. (2021) [70] radical nephrectomy 7/26100 8528 17572 RE MD -0.84 [-1.52; -0.16] 99% RALS
Wang et al. (2019) [71] donor nephrectomy 7/514 250 264 RE MD -6.79 [-17.25; 3.66] 81% None
Sharma et al. (2022) [72] partial nephrectomy 5/969 N/A N/A RE MD -0.36 [-1.04; 0.32] 93% None
Xiao et al. (2020) [73] donor nephrectomy -/- N/A N/A N/A MD -0.01 [-0.66; 0.69] N/A None
Roh et al. (2018) [37] - 1/45 15 30 RE MD -1.00 [-1.38; -0.62] N/A RALSe
Operative time (min)
Author (year) Ref. Surgical specifications No. studies / participants Participants RALS Participants CLS RE / FE (Standardized) Mean Difference
[95%-CI]
Heterogeneity (I2) Favours
Li et al. (2020) [69] - 6/1372 532 840 RE MD 29.05 [-0.31; 58.41] 93% None
Crocerossa et al. (2021) [70] radical nephrectomy 5/1328 511 817 RE MD 37.44 [3.94; 70.94] 94% CLS
Wang et al. (2019) [71] donor nephrectomy 7/510 249 261 RE SMD 0.53 [0.20; 0.85] 59% CLS
Sharma et al. (2022) [72] partial nephrectomy 5/969 N/A N/A RE MD -11.74 [-38.17; 14.69] 93% None
Xiao et al. (2020) [73] donor nephrectomy -/- N/A N/A N/A MD 16.06 [-13.46; 46.82] N/A None
Roh et al. (2018) [37] - 1/45 15 30 RE MD 15.87 [-4.79; 36.53] N/A Nonee
Table 12. All quantitative data extracted from the included meta-analyses regarding prostatectomy. The last column denotes whether the synthesized outcome favours CLS, RALS, or shows no significant differences. This distinction is highlighted using different cell colours: red represents a significant difference in favour of CLS, yellow indicates no significant difference, and green indicates a significant difference in favour of RALS. *In [77] minor and major postoperative complications were reported separately, of which both are included. fThe result of the corresponding meta-analysis is based on one primary source only. Abbreviations: RALS = Robot-assisted laparoscopic surgery, CLS = conventional laparoscopic surgery, RE = random effect model, FE = fixed effect model, CI = confidence interval, OR = Odds Ratio, MD = Mean Difference, SMD = Standardized Mean Difference, N/A = not applicable or available.
Table 12. All quantitative data extracted from the included meta-analyses regarding prostatectomy. The last column denotes whether the synthesized outcome favours CLS, RALS, or shows no significant differences. This distinction is highlighted using different cell colours: red represents a significant difference in favour of CLS, yellow indicates no significant difference, and green indicates a significant difference in favour of RALS. *In [77] minor and major postoperative complications were reported separately, of which both are included. fThe result of the corresponding meta-analysis is based on one primary source only. Abbreviations: RALS = Robot-assisted laparoscopic surgery, CLS = conventional laparoscopic surgery, RE = random effect model, FE = fixed effect model, CI = confidence interval, OR = Odds Ratio, MD = Mean Difference, SMD = Standardized Mean Difference, N/A = not applicable or available.
Blood loss
Author (year) Ref. Surgical specifications No. studies / participants Participants RALS Participants CLS RE / FE (Standardized) Mean Difference
[95%-CI]
Heterogeneity (I2) Favours
Du et al. (2018) [59] radical prostatectomy 5/3185 1466 1692 RE SMD -0.31 [-0.61; -0.01] 87% RALS
Carbonara et al. (2021) [74] radical prostatectomy 10/4722 2328 2394 RE MD -53.19 [-116.11; 9.74] 97% None
Wang et al. (2019) [75] radical prostatectomy 9/1914 912 1002 RE SMD -0.38 [-0.84; 0.08] 95% None
Pandolfo et al. (2022) [76] simple prostatectomy 5/2006 828 1178 RE MD -23.33 [-85.93; 39.27] 89% None
Roh et al. (2018) [37] - 1/120 60 60 FE MD -32.10 [-81.36; 17.16] N/A Nonef
Conversion to open surgery rate
Author (year) Ref. Surgical specifications No. studies / participants Participants RALS Participants CLS RE / FE Odds Ratio
[95%-CI]
Heterogeneity (I2) Favours
Li et al. (2022) [77] simple prostatectomy 4/1878 728 1150 RE OR 0.89 [0.55; 1.45] 0% None
Roh et al. (2018) [37] - 1/112 52 60 FE OR 2.00 [0.61; 6.55] N/A Nonef
Intraoperative complication rate
Author (year) Ref. Surgical specifications No. studies / participants Participants RALS Participants CLS RE / FE Odds Ratio
[95%-CI]
Heterogeneity (I2) Favours
Li et al. (2022) [77] simple prostatectomy 5/1928 753 1175 RE OR 1.16 [0.70; 1.92] 0% None
Postoperative complication rate
Author (year) Ref. Surgical specifications No. studies / participants Participants RALS Participants CLS RE / FE Risk Ratio / Odds Ratio
[95%-CI]
Heterogeneity (I2) Favours
Carbonara et al. (2021) [74] radical prostatectomy 9/5585 3048 2537 RE OR 1.03 [0.78; 1.34] 37% None
Wang et al. (2019) [75] radical prostatectomy 8/5155 3975 1180 RE OR 0.61 [0.46; 0.81] 35% RALS
Pandolfo et al. (2022) [76] simple prostatectomy 5/2006 828 1178 RE RR 1.66 [0.94; 2.91] 66% None
Li et al. (2022) – minor compl. [77] simple prostatectomy 3/1810 696 1114 RE OR 2.22 [0.96; 5.00] 72% None*
Li et al. (2022) – major compl. [77] simple prostatectomy 3/1810 696 1114 RE OR 2.38 [0.99; 5.56] 15% None*
Length of hospital stay (days)
Author (year) Ref. Surgical specifications No. studies / participants Participants RALS Participants CLS RE / FE Mean Difference
[95%-CI]
Heterogeneity (I2) Favours
Pandolfo et al. (2022) [76] simple prostatectomy 4/1767 674 1093 RE MD -1.44 [-2.48; -0.40] 97% RALS
Li et al. (2022) [77] simple prostatectomy 4/1767 674 1093 RE MD -1.20 [-2.32; -0.09] 99% RALS
Operative time (min)
Author (year) Ref. Surgical specifications No. studies / participants Participants RALS Participants CLS RE / FE (Standardized) Mean Difference
[95%-CI]
Heterogeneity (I2) Favours
Du et al. (2018) [59] radical prostatectomy 7/4604 1795 2809 RE SMD -0.71 [-1.25; -0.18] 97% RALS
Carbonara et al. (2021) [74] radical prostatectomy 9/3541 2190 1351 RE MD -16.36 [-46.33; 13.60] 99% None
Pandolfo et al. (2022) [76] simple prostatectomy 5/2003 828 1175 RE MD 19.14 [-4.12; 42.39] 95% None
Li et al. (2022) [77] simple prostatectomy 5/1928 753 1175 RE MD 24.34 [-0.82; 49.50] 96% None
Roh et al. (2018) [37] - 1/120 60 60 RE MD 8.90 [-1.27; 19.07] N/A Nonef
Figure 2. Bar charts of all quantitative and qualitative data per clinical outcome for: (a) cholecystectomy; (a) colectomy; (c) hysterectomy; (d) nephrectomy; (e) prostatectomy. Each bar chart has three categories:.
Figure 2. Bar charts of all quantitative and qualitative data per clinical outcome for: (a) cholecystectomy; (a) colectomy; (c) hysterectomy; (d) nephrectomy; (e) prostatectomy. Each bar chart has three categories:.
Preprints 92240 g002aPreprints 92240 g002b
  • CLS, this portion of the bar is coloured red. The length of this part represents the number of systematic reviews and meta-analyses that provided quantitative or qualitative data showing a significant difference in favour of CLS for a given clinical outcome.
  • None: this portion of the bar is coloured yellow. The length of this part of the bar represents the number of systematic reviews and meta-analyses that provided quantitative or qualitative data showing that RALS and CLS de-rived comparable results for a given clinical outcome.
  • RALS: this portion of the bar is coloured green. The length of this part of the bar represents the number of systematic reviews and meta-analyses that provided quantitative or qualitative data showing a significant difference in favour of RALS for a given clinical outcome.
Table 13. This overview summarizes all the data included. Per surgical category the clinical outcomes favour either RALS, CLS, None or in between (RALS/None and CLS/None). Colours are used in a stoplight format to emphasize these findings: red denotes a preference for CLS, yellow indicates comparable outcomes between CLS and RALS, and green indicates that RALS is the superior option for that particular outcome. A grey background was used in RALS/None and CLS/None cases. The final row indicates whether the clinical outcomes favour RALS, CLS, or None across all surgical procedures.
Table 13. This overview summarizes all the data included. Per surgical category the clinical outcomes favour either RALS, CLS, None or in between (RALS/None and CLS/None). Colours are used in a stoplight format to emphasize these findings: red denotes a preference for CLS, yellow indicates comparable outcomes between CLS and RALS, and green indicates that RALS is the superior option for that particular outcome. A grey background was used in RALS/None and CLS/None cases. The final row indicates whether the clinical outcomes favour RALS, CLS, or None across all surgical procedures.
Category Blood loss Conversion rate Hospitalization costs Incisional Hernia Rate Intraoperative complication rate Postoperative complication rate Length of hospital stay Operative time Readmission rate Wound infection rate
Cholecystectomy None None CLS CLS None None None CLS/None None None
Colectomy RALS/None RALS CLS None None None RALS/None CLS None None
Hysterectomy RALS/None None CLS - None None RALS/None None None None
Nephrectomy None None - - None None RALS/None CLS/None - -
Prostatectomy None None CLS - None None RALS None - -
General None None CLS - None None RALS CLS None None

4. Discussion

4.1. Costs and Operative Time

This umbrella review compiled the evidence on the use of RALS and CLS and provided a comprehensive analysis of ten clinical outcomes for five surgical procedures. In general, it has been demonstrated that RALS yielded comparable results as CLS on blood loss, conversion to open surgery rates, intraoperative complication rates, postoperative complication rates, readmission rates and wound infection rates for most surgical procedures. While the hospitalization costs associated with RALS were greater than the costs of CLS and the operative times of RALS were longer than CLS, it was demonstrated that RALS shortened hospitalization stays in nearly all cases. The available data on incisional hernia rates were lacking.
RALS has proven to achieve comparable clinical results as CLS, however, there are two important drawbacks associated with RALS: the increased expenses of RALS and the increased operative time. Many of the included reviews emphasized that RALS is more expensive than CLS [31,33,34,35,36,37,42,44,46,49,51,52,53,54,55,59,69,70,71,74,75,76,77]. The substantially higher costs are hard to justify as the clinical outcomes barely showed any significant advantages compared to CLS. However, the increased set-up and consumable costs are ultimately mitigated due to shorter hospital stays of RALS patients [57]. Furthermore, the costs of RALS systems may decrease in the future due to competition and innovations [10,44].
Secondly, it is frequently stressed that the surgeon’s experience and learning curve is not taken into account in current literature and these shortcomings can negatively impact the clinical findings of RALS [49,50,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,70,77]. Overcoming these limitations might demonstrate stronger clinical benefits for RALS patients, which would justify the higher costs.
Finally, it should be noted that although the clinical outcomes investigated in this study may not reveal significant advancements (except for a shorter length of hospital stay), physicians can still benefit from utilizing RALS systems. Numerous studies emphasized the superior ergonomics, enhanced dexterity, and stable 3D high-definition visualization that RALS can provide, as well as tremor filtration (by filtering out high-frequency movements), providing seven degrees of freedom and scaling down movements of the surgeon, which allows surgeons to perform exaggerated movements which are translated to microscopic maneuvers [34,37,45,48,57,58,62,63,74,77]. Even though it was assumed that these advantages would translate into improved clinical outcomes, which could not be confirmed in this umbrella review, they can still be beneficial for physicians. For instance, the posture and muscle strain was analyzed in thirteen surgeons during colorectal procedures and was found to be less demanding during RALS [78]. Furthermore, the ergonomics of RALS systems directly impacted efficiency and efficacy by reducing cervical strain [62].
It was even observed that the mean heart rate of surgeons was significantly lower when utilizing RALS systems, as opposed to CLS approaches for performing the same surgical procedures [79]. Therefore, when assessing the feasibility and justifying the costs of RALS in surgical settings, it is important to consider clinical and non-clinical aspects that impact both patients and physicians. In this umbrella review, non-clinical aspects and the role of physicians were not taken into account.
The second major drawback of RALS is the increased operative time. In this study, it was found that the operative time was either comparable between RALS and CLS or longer when patients were treated by RALS. However, the available data on operative time was inconsistent. While some studies defined operative time as the complete duration of a patient’s treatment, including preparation time in the operating room, others only considered the time from skin incision to skin closure [34,47]. Moreover, some studies did not provide any definition of operative time. This lack of consistency creates uncertainty regarding the actual duration of operations and makes it difficult to compare RALS and CLS operative times from different reviews.
Some reviews pointed out that the operative time of RALS procedures was longer, due to docking and set-up of the systems and the learning curve of the surgeon and the rest of the team [53,54,56,57,59,67]. Since RALS is not a routine procedure at some surgical sites yet, these factors can prolong the operative time [80]. Moreover, several studies pointed out that complex patients are more likely to be treated with RALS which induces a selection bias [39,45,49,56].
RALS, with its technical advantages, has the potential to expand the boundaries of minimally invasive surgery such that even the most complex cases are treated by minimally invasive surgery, which would otherwise have required an open surgery approach [39] . These factors do have implications on the operative time.

4.2. Reflection on CCA-Scores

The CCA indicates to what extent the primary sources of systematic reviews and meta-analyses overlap. If the CCA score is high, indicating a high overlap, the conclusions drawn in the reviews should be consistent. If the CCA score is low, indicating a small overlap, discrepancies in the conclusions drawn by the individual reviews are explainable [81]. The CCA-scores of the reviews for cholecystectomy, colectomy, hysterectomy, nephrectomy and prostatectomy were all less than 5% (Table A1), hence there was only a slight overlap of primary sources between the systematic reviews and meta-analyses within the five surgical categories. Although the overlap was slight, the conclusions drawn by the reviews are more or less similar. In this case, the low CCA scores suggest that a wide variety of primary sources have been incorporated, which enhances the generalizability of the findings.

4.3. Limitations

The limitations of this umbrella review are discussed in the following sections.

4.3.1. Summarization Table

Table 13 was constructed to formulate overall conclusions. For instance, the hospitalization costs of cholecystectomy were analyzed in three reviews. All three reviews concluded that the costs were significantly higher with RALS (which can be easily observed in the bar charts of Figure 2). Therefore it was concluded in Table 13 that the hospitalization costs are in favour of CLS. Regarding the length of hospital stay of prostatectomy patients, three reviews concluded that RALS shortened the length of hospitalization and one review did not observe any significant differences (as can be easily observed in Figure 2e). Based on these four reviews, the results were in favour of RALS, which was entered into Table 13. However, this approach imposes strong limitations: some reviews included many more patients and primary sources than others. These quantitative differences were not taken into account.
One might think that combining all data and conducting statistical analysis of the entire pool of patients would be more evident, but performing statistical analyses based on merged meta-analytic data is not allowed. Umbrella reviews are meant to provide a high level of overview and reach intuitive conclusions [82], instead of performing statistical analysis of the total group. Therefore this method and the way Table 13 was derived, was considered to be appropriate. However, these results should be interpreted with caution and readers should be aware of the limitations.

4.3.2. Previous Work

A similar umbrella review has already been conducted and published in 2021. This umbrella review examined and compared the data of systematic reviews and meta-analyses of common laparoscopic and robot-assisted surgeries too. The study was conducted in 2021 and reviewed papers published between January 2017 and January 2019 [21]. Despite the similarities between this umbrella review and that of [21], the present review is of added value: the umbrella review from Muaddi et al. lacked a systematic approach and failed to properly synthesize the extracted data. In addition, they did not conduct a quality assessment of the included publications (AMSTAR 2 for example) and included incomplete supplementary documents (comments were not processed). Even more, since its publication, many more systematic reviews and meta-analyses have been conducted. Therefore, the current umbrella review holds more significance due to its higher methodological quality and the inclusion of a wider range of publications.

4.3.3. Selection of Surgical Procedures

To narrow the scope of this umbrella review, it was decided to include systematic reviews and meta-analyses that reported data on either cholecystectomy, colectomy, hysterectomy, nephrectomy and/or prostatectomy only. As explained in the method section, reviews that analyzed multiple surgical procedures of which one (or more) covered one of these five surgical procedures, were still included. Only relevant data were extracted from these reviews.
Based on several sources and data, as elaborated in section 2.2, it was decided to focus on these five specific surgical procedures. However, there are many more procedures that are frequently executed with robotic systems, such as inguinal hernia repair, Roux-en-Y gastric bypass and hepatectomy. The decision to focus only on these five surgical procedures limits the value of the analysis. Ideally, all commonly executed robotic procedures would have been included. However, given the time frame of this review, including a broader range of surgical procedures was not possible.

4.3.4. Publication Date of Primary Sources

Since RALS has not been around very long, it is likely that RALS development will progress and the learning curve, experience and applications will advance. By including papers published within the past five years only, it was assumed that this umbrella review could provide an overview of and insights into more recently achieved results and data. However, while the search query filtered out systematic reviews and meta-analyses published before 2018, the publication dates of primary sources were not taken into account. During extraction of the study characteristics (Table with Study Characteristics is available for download in the list of Supplementary Materials) it turned out two reviews included primary sources published back in 1996 and 1998. Therefore, the data in this umbrella review was based on primary sources that are published in a much wider time frame than originally intended. Nonetheless, most of the reviews conducted their analyses on primary sources published between 2010 and 2021 (835 out of 1046). A graph depicting the publication year of all 1046 primary sources was generated to provide detailed awareness of this limitation (Figure A1).

4.3.5. Heterogeneity

Many reviews indicated that there was high variability in the data: heterogeneity. Calculations of heterogeneity (I2) were extracted along with the quantitative data. Based on the data presented in the results section, it is apparent that there was a high level of heterogeneity in most cases. This outcome is not surprising considering the large amounts of data that were aggregated in the reviews, which included significant variations in surgical techniques, procedures and approaches, the experience of surgeons, and patient demographics (such as their condition, stage of disease, and age). High heterogeneity can indicate that the results of the studies being analyzed are quite diverse, and it may be challenging to draw definitive conclusions from them. However, most reviews used appropriate statistical methods to account for high heterogeneity (random-effect model). Thus, despite the heterogeneity, the conclusions drawn from the reviews are still valid, although the findings should be interpreted with caution.

4.3.6. AMSTAR 2 Quality Assessment

Remarkably, all of the included studies, except for [29], were assessed to be of critically low or low quality based on the AMSTAR 2 quality assessment [23]. In Figure 3 an overview was created to reflect on the criteria that most reviews failed to fulfil. The AMSTAR 2 quality assessment was published in 2017. A possible explanation could be that systematic reviews and meta-analyses published shortly after the release of AMSTAR 2, were not aware of certain criteria that were added to AMSTAR 2. For instance, criterion 10 ”Did the review authors report on the sources of funding for the studies included in the review?” was added to the original AMSTAR quality assessment list. However, all systematic reviews and meta-analyses (even the reviews published many years later) failed to meet this criterion.
Similarly, 94% of all reviews included failed to fulfil criterion 7: ”Did the review authors provide a list of excluded studies and justify the exclusions?”. Many reviews reported on the number of records excluded and provided the reason for exclusions during the full-text review phase too (using PRISMA flow diagrams). But the AMSTAR 2 quality assessment requires a full list of records that were excluded during full-text reviewing, along with the reason for exclusion per record. Many reviews failed to do so.
The fact that the quality of 51 out of the 52 systematic reviews and meta-analyses was low or critically low, impacts the quality of the data extracted and therefore the quality of this umbrella review too.

4.3.7. Study Type of Primary Sources

Another limitation of this umbrella review was the study type of primary sources and the associated quality of evidence. In general, random controlled trials (RCTs) are considered the gold standard for evaluating the effectiveness of interventions [83]. However, the number of RCTs conducted that compare RALS and CLS is very scarce. Almost all systematic reviews and meta-analyses included in this umbrella review indicated the lack of RCTs among their primary sources and the implications this has for the quality of evidence. Since this umbrella review is based on the data from the primary sources of systematic reviews and meta-analyses, the same implications apply to the results presented in this study. Therefore, the results should be interpreted with caution. To increase the quality of evidence among RALS and CLS research, many more RCTs should be conducted in the near future.

4.3.8. Quantitative/Qualitative Data

In some rare cases, quantitative data provided in (network) meta-analyses were not extracted as such, but translated to qualitative data first (e.g. [38,45,68]). The statistical analyses conducted in these reviews did not match the quantitative data format adhered to in this umbrella review. Including the various statistical analyses would make this umbrella review overly detailed and potentially confusing. Thus, the decision was made to translate the quantitative data into qualitative data (along with qualitative data already formulated in these reviews) and to incorporate these results in the qualitative tables. By these means, important findings of these reviews were included without needlessly complicating the overview of the results.

5. Conclusions

In conclusion, this umbrella review synthesized the data of 52 systematic reviews and meta-analyses, including 1046 primary sources published between 1996 and 2022 that reported data from more than 1,288,425 patients. RALS yielded comparable results as CLS in terms of blood loss, conversion to open surgery rate, intraoperative complication rate, postoperative complication rate, readmission rate and wound infection rate for cholecystectomy, colectomy, hysterectomy, nephrectomy and prostatectomy. Additionally, RALS significantly reduced the length of hospital stay compared to patients treated by CLS. However, RALS is also associated with significantly higher costs and longer operative times (although this may be affected by confounding factors such as preparation time, surgeon’s experience and learning curve). Based on the quantitative and qualitative data collected in this umbrella review, RALS obtained promising and consistent results. Future work should evaluate procedure-specific outcomes too, in order to provide a complete overview of the advantages and disadvantages of the use of RALS as compared to CLS. This approach will enable a better understanding of the potential benefits of RALS in specific surgical procedures. Finally it is suggested that more research, and especially RCTs, are required to prove that RALS is as safe and reliable as CLS and to improve the quality of evidence.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at the website of this paper posted on Preprints.org. Table SP1: study characteristics; Table SP2: primary sources and citation matrices; Table SP3: AMSTAR 2 Quality Assessment Results; PDF of the AMSTAR 2 Quality Assessment item list.

Funding

This research received no (external) funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

We like to thank Bart van Straten for his support during the data collection and structuring of the work.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Appendix A

Table A1. Corrected Covered Area (CCA) of each surgical procedure group. The CCA score indicates the overlap between the included papers. CCA is further elaborated in Section 2.7.
Table A1. Corrected Covered Area (CCA) of each surgical procedure group. The CCA score indicates the overlap between the included papers. CCA is further elaborated in Section 2.7.
Surgical category N r c CCA score
Cholecystectomy 197 161 7 3.7%
Colectomy 556 354 23 2.6%
Hysterectomy 186 148 10 2.9%
Nephrectomy 248 223 9 1.4%
Prostatectomy 195 160 8 3.1%

Appendix B

Table A2. All qualitative data extracted from the included studies regarding cholecystectomy. The last column denotes whether the synthesized outcome favours CLS, RALS, or shows no significant differences. This distinction is highlighted using different cell colours: red represents a significant favour towards CLS, yellow indicates no significant differences observed, and green indicates a significant difference in favour of RALS. Abbreviations: RALS = Robot-assisted laparoscopic surgery, CLS = conventional laparoscopic surgery.
Table A2. All qualitative data extracted from the included studies regarding cholecystectomy. The last column denotes whether the synthesized outcome favours CLS, RALS, or shows no significant differences. This distinction is highlighted using different cell colours: red represents a significant favour towards CLS, yellow indicates no significant differences observed, and green indicates a significant difference in favour of RALS. Abbreviations: RALS = Robot-assisted laparoscopic surgery, CLS = conventional laparoscopic surgery.
Conversion to open surgery rate
Author (year) Ref. Synthesized finding Favours
Shenoy et al. (2021) [32] Comparable results in conversion to open surgery rates were observed between RALS and CLS. None
Incisional hernia rate
Author (year) Ref. Synthesized finding Favours
Shenoy et al. (2021) [32] Incisional hernia rate did not differ significantly between RALS and CLS. None
Intraoperative complication rate
Author (year) Ref. Synthesized finding Favours
Shenoy et al. (2021) [32] No significant differences were observed between RALS and CLS. None
Postoperative complication rate
Author (year) Ref. Synthesized finding Favours
Lin et al. (2023) [38] Based on ranking probabilities, the best surgical options for reducing postoperative complications are: three-port (61.3%) and four-port (21.8%) laparoscopy. CLS
Operative time
Author (year) Ref. Synthesized finding Favours
Shenoy et al. (2021) [32] Operative time was longer in cholecystectomy performed by RALS compared to CLS. CLS
Lin et al. (2023) [38] The first ranking probabilities for reducing operation time showed that the three-port laparoscopic technique had the shortest operation time, followed by four-port. CLS
Length of hospital stay
Author (year) Ref. Synthesized finding Favours
Shenoy et al. (2021) [32] The length of hospital stay between RALS and CLS was comparable for cholecystectomy. None
Lin et al. (2023) [38] The first ranking probabilities for reducing hospital stay (days) are: robotic (32.3%) followed by three-port (29.0%). RALS
Readmission rate
Author (year) Ref. Synthesized finding Favours
Shenoy et al. (2021) [32] The readmission rate after RALS and CLS cholecystectomy was comparable. None
Table A3. All qualitative data extracted from the included studies regarding colectomy. The last column denotes whether the synthesized outcome favours CLS, RALS, or shows no significant differences. This distinction is highlighted using different cell colours: red represents a significant favour towards CLS, yellow indicates no significant differences were observed, and green indicates a significant difference in favour of RALS. Abbreviations: RALS = Robot-assisted laparoscopic surgery, CLS = conventional laparoscopic surgery.
Table A3. All qualitative data extracted from the included studies regarding colectomy. The last column denotes whether the synthesized outcome favours CLS, RALS, or shows no significant differences. This distinction is highlighted using different cell colours: red represents a significant favour towards CLS, yellow indicates no significant differences were observed, and green indicates a significant difference in favour of RALS. Abbreviations: RALS = Robot-assisted laparoscopic surgery, CLS = conventional laparoscopic surgery.
Blood loss
Author (year) Ref. Synthesized finding Favours
Cuk et al. (2023) [45] RALS reduced intraoperative blood loss compared to CLS. RALS
Conversion to open surgery rate
Author (year) Ref. Synthesized finding Favours
Cuk et al. (2023) [45] No differences in conversion rates between RALS and CLS were observed. None
Petz et al. (2021) [30] RALS showed lower conversion rates compared to CLS. RALS
Waters et al. (2020) [57] Patients undergoing RALS have a lower conversion to open surgery rate compared to CLS. RALS
Incisional hernia rate
Author (year) Ref. Synthesized finding Favours
Waters et al. (2020) [57] Patients undergoing RALS colectomy have a significantly lower incisional hernia rate compared to CLS colectomy. RALS
Postoperative complication rate
Author (year) Ref. Synthesized finding Favours
Petz et al. (2021) [30] No differences in postoperative complication rates were found.. None
Operative time
Author (year) Ref. Synthesized finding Favours
Petz et al. (2021) [30] In all the comparative studies included, the operative time of RALS was significantly longer than CLS. CLS
Waters et al. (2020) [57] RALS operative time was found to be significantly longer compared to LRH in thirteen studies. CLS
Length of hospital stay
Author (year) Ref. Synthesized finding Favours
Cuk et al. (2023) [45] The RALS group had a shorter hospital stay compared to the CLS group. RALS
Waters et al. (2020) [57] Patients undergoing RALS experience a significantly shorter hospital stay compared to CLS. RALS
Wound infection rate
Author (year) Ref. Synthesized finding Favours
Waters et al. (2020) [57] No significant differences in wound infection rates were observed between CLS and RALS among ten included studies. None
Table A4. All qualitative data extracted from the studies included regarding hysterectomy. The last column denotes whether the synthesized outcome favours CLS, RALS, or shows no significant differences. This distinction is highlighted using different cell colours: red represents a significant favour towards CLS, yellow indicates no significant differences were observed, and green indicates a significant difference in favour of RALS. Abbreviations: RALS = Robot-assisted laparoscopic surgery, CLS = conventional laparoscopic surgery.
Table A4. All qualitative data extracted from the studies included regarding hysterectomy. The last column denotes whether the synthesized outcome favours CLS, RALS, or shows no significant differences. This distinction is highlighted using different cell colours: red represents a significant favour towards CLS, yellow indicates no significant differences were observed, and green indicates a significant difference in favour of RALS. Abbreviations: RALS = Robot-assisted laparoscopic surgery, CLS = conventional laparoscopic surgery.
Blood loss
Author (year) Ref. Synthesized finding Favours
Alshowaikh et al. (2021) [59] The blood loss between CLS and RALS hysterectomy was comparable. None
Guo et al. (2023) [64] On a SUCRA ranking of five surgical approaches, the RALS approach scored best. The laparoscopic approach was ranked second. RALS
Hospitalization costs
Author (year) Ref. Synthesized finding Favours
Alshowaikh et al. (2021) [59] The cost associated with RALS was higher than the costs of CLS hysterectomy. CLS
Postoperative complication rate
Author (year) Ref. Synthesized finding Favours
Alshowaikh et al. (2021) [59] The overall complication rate was comparable between RALS and CLS hysterectomy. None
Prodromidou et al. (2020) [60] No differences in either major or overall postoperative complication rates were observed between RALS and CLS hysterectomy. None
Guo et al. (2023) [64] Among a SUCRA ranking of five surgical approaches, RALS was ranked higher than CLS regarding the overall complication rate. RALS
Operative time
Author (year) Ref. Synthesized finding Favours
Alshowaikh et al. (2021) [59] The operative time between CLS and RALS hysterectomy was comparable. None
Prodromidou et al. (2020) [60] Neither the total operative time nor the operative time (pre-surgical procedures excluded) showed any differences between RALS and CLS. None
Guo et al. (2023) [64] The operative time, compared between five surgical approaches with a SUCRA ranking, is the shortest for open surgery. The second best is laparoscopic surgery. The operative time of RALS is ranked fourth. CLS
Length of hospital stay
Author (year) Ref. Synthesized finding Favours
Alshowaikh et al. (2021) [59] No statistical differences were observed between RALS and CLS hysterectomy for the length of hospital stay. None
Guo et al. (2023) [64] Among a SUCRA ranking of five surgical approaches, the RALS proved to be the preferred approach for the shortest hospital stay. The laparoscopic approach was ranked second. RALS
Table A5. All qualitative data extracted from the included studies regarding nephrectomy. The last column denotes whether the synthesized outcome favours CLS, RALS, or shows no significant differences. This distinction is highlighted using different cell colours: red represents a significant favour towards CLS, yellow indicates no significant differences were observed, and green indicates a significant difference in favour of RALS. Abbreviations: RALS = Robot-assisted laparoscopic surgery, CLS = conventional laparoscopic surgery.
Table A5. All qualitative data extracted from the included studies regarding nephrectomy. The last column denotes whether the synthesized outcome favours CLS, RALS, or shows no significant differences. This distinction is highlighted using different cell colours: red represents a significant favour towards CLS, yellow indicates no significant differences were observed, and green indicates a significant difference in favour of RALS. Abbreviations: RALS = Robot-assisted laparoscopic surgery, CLS = conventional laparoscopic surgery.
Blood loss
Author (year) Ref. Synthesized finding Favours
Veccia et al. (2020) [68] Lower blood losses were observed in patients in the RALS group. RALS
Tang et al. (2020) [28] There was less blood loss in RALS partial nephrectomy compared to CLS. RALS
Intraoperative complication rate
Author (year) Ref. Synthesized finding Favours
Zahid et al. (2022) [67] Radical nephrectomy with RALS was associated with fewer perioperative complications. RALS
Veccia et al. (2020) [68] RALS had the lowest rate of intraoperative complications. RALS
Tang et al. (2020) [28] RALS and CLS obtained similar results on the intraoperative complications rate after partial nephrectomy. None
Postoperative complication rate
Author (year) Ref. Synthesized finding Favours
Tang et al. (2020) [28] (Major) postoperative complication rates after CLS or RALS partial nephrectomy were comparable. None
Operative time
Author (year) Ref. Synthesized finding Favours
Zahid et al. (2022) [67] Radical nephrectomy with RALS was associated with longer operative time CLS
Veccia et al. (2020) [68] The operative time for RALS and CLS nephroureterectomy was comparable. None
Tang et al. (2020) [28] Comparable results in operative time were observed between RALS and CLS. None
Length of hospital stay
Author (year) Ref. Synthesized finding Favours
Veccia et al. (2020) [68] The length of hospital stay was statistically significantly shorter for the RALS group compared to CLS. RALS
Tang et al. (2020) [28] The length of hospital stay was shorter after a partial nephrectomy performed with RALS compared to CLS. RALS
Table A6. All qualitative data extracted from the included studies regarding prostatectomy. The last column denotes whether the synthesized outcome favours CLS, RALS, or shows no significant differences. This distinction is highlighted using different cell colours: red represents a significant favour towards CLS, yellow indicates no significant differences were observed, and green indicates a significant difference in favour of RALS. Abbreviations: RALS = Robot-assisted laparoscopic surgery, CLS = conventional laparoscopic surgery.
Table A6. All qualitative data extracted from the included studies regarding prostatectomy. The last column denotes whether the synthesized outcome favours CLS, RALS, or shows no significant differences. This distinction is highlighted using different cell colours: red represents a significant favour towards CLS, yellow indicates no significant differences were observed, and green indicates a significant difference in favour of RALS. Abbreviations: RALS = Robot-assisted laparoscopic surgery, CLS = conventional laparoscopic surgery.
Blood loss
Author (year) Ref. Synthesized finding Favours
Zahid et al. (2022) [67] Less blood loss was observed during RALS as compared to other approaches. RALS
Kordan et al. (2020) [27] Blood loss was comparable between RALS and CLS, with slightly less blood loss in favour of RALS. None
Intraoperative complication rate
Author (year) Ref. Synthesized finding Favours
Zahid et al. (2022) [67] One study reported similar intraoperative complications. None
Operative time
Author (year) Ref. Synthesized finding Favours
Kordan et al. (2020) [27] Operative time was shorter for CLS simple prostatectomy procedures compared to RALS. CLS
Length of hospital stay
Author (year) Ref. Synthesized finding Favours
Zahid et al. (2022) [67] RALS showed a shorter length of hospital stay compared to other conventional procedures. RALS
Kordan et al. (2020) [27] Length of hospital stay was comparable between RALS and CLS simple prostatectomy. None

Appendix C

Table A7. The search queries established for the other four surgical procedures. The final search queries are composed in a similar manner as demonstrated in Table 1 and Table 2 for colectomy.
Table A7. The search queries established for the other four surgical procedures. The final search queries are composed in a similar manner as demonstrated in Table 1 and Table 2 for colectomy.
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Figure A1. Bar chart of the number of primary sources published per year.
Figure A1. Bar chart of the number of primary sources published per year.
Preprints 92240 g0a1
Table A8. List of all papers that were excluded during the full-text review phase.
Table A8. List of all papers that were excluded during the full-text review phase.
No. Author (Year) Ref. Reason for exclusion
1 Alkatout et al. (2022) [84] This paper does not compare RALS and CLS. The paper evaluated the outcomes of different Versius systems.
2 Charalambides et al. (2022) [85] This paper does not compare RALS with CLS.
3 Toh et al. (2020) [86] Wrong study type. This review does not have a methodology, is not systematic and only reviews some outcomes of a few randomly selected papers.
4 Oweira et al. (2023) [87] Full-text was not available.
5 Zhu et al. (2021) [58] This paper does not compare RALS with CLS. The paper compared two different Da Vinci systems instead.
6 Leitoa et al. (2023) [88] The clinical outcomes of interest have not been reported in this paper.
7 Kampers et al. (2021) [89] The clinical outcomes of interest have not been reported in this paper.
8 Nitecki et al. (2020) [90] The clinical outcomes of interest have not been reported in this paper.
9 Marra et al. (2019) [91] Full-text was not available.
10 Behbehani et al. (2019) [92] The clinical outcomes of interest have not been reported in this paper.
11 Behbehani et al. (2020) [93] The clinical outcomes of interest have not been reported in this paper.
12 Kostakis et al. (2019) [94] The clinical outcomes of interest have not been reported in this paper.
13 Hinojosa-Gonzalez et al. (2023) [95] Full-text was not available.
14 Lin et al. (2021) [96] Full-text was not available. Publication was removed.
15 Zahid et al. (2023) [97] "This review is excluded as it is a duplicate of [67]. [67] was included.
16 Cacciamai et al. (2018) [76] Full-text was not available.
17 Ficarra et al. (2018) [98] The clinical outcomes of interest have not been reported in this paper.
18 Cao et al. (2019) [84] This paper does not compare RALS with CLS. Instead, RALS and CLS patients formed one experimental group, which was compared with an open prostatectomy control group.
19 Sridharan et al. (2018) [99] The clinical outcomes of interest have not been reported in this paper.
20 Moretti et al. (2022) [70] Wrong study type. This paper is a reverse systematic review that includes all primary sources of identified systematic reviews, which should not be included in an umbrella review.
21 Marra et al. (2019) [100] The clinical outcomes of interest have not been reported in this paper.

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  67. Zahid, A., et al., Robotic surgery in comparison to the open and laparoscopic approaches in the field of urology: a systematic review. Journal of Robotic Surgery, 2022. [CrossRef]
  68. Veccia, A., et al., Robotic versus other nephroureterectomy techniques: a systematic review and meta-analysis of over 87,000 cases. World J Urol, 2020. 38(4): p. 845-852. [CrossRef]
  69. Li, J., et al., Comparison of Perioperative Outcomes of Robot-Assisted vs. Laparoscopic Radical Nephrectomy: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Frontiers in Oncology, 2020. 10. [CrossRef]
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  71. Wang, H., et al., Robot-assisted laparoscopic vs laparoscopic donor nephrectomy in renal transplantation: A meta-analysis. Clinical Transplantation, 2019. 33(1). [CrossRef]
  72. Sharma, G., et al., Robot-assisted partial nephrectomy for moderate to highly complex renal masses. A systematic review and meta-analysis. Indian Journal of Urology, 2022. 38(3): p. 174-183. [CrossRef]
  73. Xiao, Q., et al., Comparison of surgical techniques in living donor nephrectomy: A systematic review and Bayesian network meta-analysis. Annals of Transplantation, 2020. 25: p. 1-20. [CrossRef]
  74. Carbonara, U., et al., Robot-assisted radical prostatectomy versus standard laparoscopic radical prostatectomy: an evidence-based analysis of comparative outcomes. World Journal of Urology, 2021. 39(10): p. 3721-3732. [CrossRef]
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Figure 1. PRISMA flow diagram depicting the number of papers identified, included and excluded [17].
Figure 1. PRISMA flow diagram depicting the number of papers identified, included and excluded [17].
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Figure 3. This bar chart illustrates the fulfilment of each criterion of the AMSTAR 2 quality assessment. Each bar is split into a percentage of the reviews that met the criterion (green) and the percentage that did not (red). The criteria in bold on the x-axis are critical criteria, the others are non-critical criteria. The results of the AMSTAR 2 quality assessment can be downloaded from the list of Supplementary Materials.
Figure 3. This bar chart illustrates the fulfilment of each criterion of the AMSTAR 2 quality assessment. Each bar is split into a percentage of the reviews that met the criterion (green) and the percentage that did not (red). The criteria in bold on the x-axis are critical criteria, the others are non-critical criteria. The results of the AMSTAR 2 quality assessment can be downloaded from the list of Supplementary Materials.
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Table 1. PubMed Search Strategy for colectomy.
Table 1. PubMed Search Strategy for colectomy.
Element Text Terms MeSH Terms # Search Query Results
Colectomy colectomy
colon resection(s)
colon surgery/surgeries
colorectal resection(s)
colorectal surgery/surgeries
Colectomy 1 “colectom*”[Title/Abstract] OR
“colon resection*”[Title/Abstract] OR
”colon surger*”[Title/Abstract] OR
”colorectal resection*” OR
”colorectal surger*”[Title/Abstract] OR
colectomy[MeSH Terms]
167.044
Laparoscopy laparoscopy
laparoscopies
laparoscopic surgery/surgeries
conventional laparoscopy
conventional laparoscopic surgery/surgeries
CLS
Laparoscopy 2 “laparoscop*”[Title/Abstract[ OR
laparoscopy[MeSH Terms]
167.858
Robot-asssisted laparoscopy robot-assisted laparoscopic surgery/surgeries
RALS
robot-assisted surgery/surgeries
robotically assisted laparoscopic surgery/surgeries
robot surgery/surgeries
robotic surgery/surgeries
advanced laparoscopic surgery/surgeries
advanced laparoscopy
Robotic Surgical Procedures 3 Robotic Surgical Procedures[MeSH Terms] OR
“robot*”[Title/Abstract] OR
”robot-assisted”[Title/Abstract]
67.816
Systematic Review or Meta-analysis Systematic Review
Systematically review
Meta-Analysis
Meta-Analytic Review
4 ”Systematic review”[Publication Type] OR
”Meta-analysis”[Publication Type] OR
”Systematic* Review”[Title/Abstract] OR
”Meta-Analy*”[Title/Abstract]
-
Publication date last 5 years: 01/01/2018 – 01/01/2023 5 (”2018/01/01”[Date – Publication] :
”2023/01/01”[Date – Publication])
-
Language English 6 ”English”[Language] -
Final search conducted on 11 February 2023 #1 AND #2 AND #3 AND #4 AND #5 AND #6 59
Table 2. Scopus Search Strategy for colectomy.
Table 2. Scopus Search Strategy for colectomy.
Element # Title Results
Colectomy 1 TITLE-ABS(“colectom*” OR
”colon resection*” OR
”colon surger*” OR
”colorectal resection*” OR
”colorectal surger*”)
170.759
Laparoscopy 2 TITLE-ABS (“laparoscop*”) 29.086
Robot-assisted
laparoscopy
3 TITLE-ABS (“robot* OR ”robot-assisted”) 469.798
Systematic Review or
Meta-analysis
4 TITLE-ABS ( ”Systematic* review” OR ”Meta-analy*” ) -
Search query #1 AND #2 AND #3 AND #4 67
Additional filters
Publication date 5 last 5 years: 01/01/2018 – 01/01/2023 -
Document types (peer-reviewed only) 6 articles or reviews -
Subject area 7 Medicine -
Language 8 English -
Final search query 29
Table 3. The AMSTAR 2 quality assessment grouped in critical and non-critical flaws [23].
Table 3. The AMSTAR 2 quality assessment grouped in critical and non-critical flaws [23].
Critical Flaws Non-Critical Flaws
Protocol registered before commencement of the review (item 2) Satisfying the components of PICO (population, intervention, comparison, and outcome)
Adequacy of the literature search (item 4) Clarification of the reasons for selection of the study designs for inclusion in the review.
Justification for excluding individual studies (item 7) Study selection is done in duplicate
Risk of bias from individual studies being included in the review (item 9) Data extraction is done in duplicate
Appropriateness of meta-analytical methods (item 11) Detailed description of the included studies
Consideration of risk of bias when interpreting the results of the review (item 13) Report on the sources of funding for the primary studies
Assessment of presence and likely impact of publication bias (item 15) Assessment of the potential impact of risk of bias on the results of the evidence synthesis Satisfactory explanation for any heterogeneity
Report of any potential sources of conflict of interest
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