1. Introduction

2. Materials and Methods

3. Results

3.1. The Contribution of Poplars to Urban Environment

As mentioned, urban landscapes in 21st century suffer from the deforestation, which stems from numerous factors. In context of global climate changes and the need of reaching sustainable urban environments, this phenomenon could be mitigated by comprehensive reforestation initiatives and development of urban green spaces [90,91,92,93,94] connected to the effective urban planning [92,93]. The expansion of urban areas and changes in land cover pose threats to urban vegetation, emphasizing the importance of sustainable management [95]. In this case a strategic tree selection is one of a necessary comprehensive solutions that provides ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration, biodiversity support, and air and water pollution mitigation. Poplars could stand out in this field due to their suitability for contemporary challenges of environmental urban and industrial environments [78,79,80].

Figure 1. Original group of Populus ×canadensis Moench (P. ×euroamericana Guiner) in the Pole Mokotowskie Park, 2019, Warsaw, Poland, exchanged into a new group of Populus ×canadensis ‘Koster’ in 2020 (J. Łukaszkiewicz).

Figure 1. Original group of Populus ×canadensis Moench (P. ×euroamericana Guiner) in the Pole Mokotowskie Park, 2019, Warsaw, Poland, exchanged into a new group of Populus ×canadensis ‘Koster’ in 2020 (J. Łukaszkiewicz).

It is proved, that poplar trees can efficiently remove airborne particulate matter (PM) and associated metals through phytoremediation, contributing to urban air quality enhancement, while their adaptation to adverse environments and fast growth make them an interesting alternative for urban landscaping [86,87]. Cultivars of poplars - if used properly (carefully selected e.g., in relation to spatial and site conditions) - could effectively improve air quality by capturing PMs, thereby reducing air pollution levels [96].

Figure 2. P. simonii Carrière ‘Fastigiata’ as urban street trees along pedestrian route - sheltering functions (J. Łukaszkiewicz 2018).

Figure 2. P. simonii Carrière ‘Fastigiata’ as urban street trees along pedestrian route - sheltering functions (J. Łukaszkiewicz 2018).

Poplars could also be effective in carbon sequestration by accumulating trace elements from polluted urban soils, serving as bioindicators for urban environmental pollution assessment [97]. Furthermore, poplar trees can modify soil microbial communities, enhance soil stability, and provide valuable habitats for ground beetles and entomofauna, enriching urban biodiversity [98].

Because of their fast growth poplars could be pivotal in counteracting the urban heat island effect and improving urban microclimates. Urban tree cover supplemented with plantings of different poplar taxa could mitigate more quickly the urban heat island effect. Poplar trees enhance the urban thermal environment through transpiration, stimulating urban “cold islands” [99,100,101,102,103,104].

Figure 3. Populus ×canadensis Moench ‘Marilandica’ planted in by-water shelterbelts of Żerański Canal, Warsaw, Poland (J. Łukaszkiewicz 2016).

Figure 3. Populus ×canadensis Moench ‘Marilandica’ planted in by-water shelterbelts of Żerański Canal, Warsaw, Poland (J. Łukaszkiewicz 2016).

Of course, also in the case of poplars in cities, their cultivation and maintenance is necessary. Considering diverse research findings to ensure optimal growth and sustainability of poplars in urban settings while minimizing risks, effective maintenance practices such as pruning, soil amendment, and irrigation are crucial [105,106,107,108,109,110,111,112]. The challenges such as insect pests and heavy metal accumulation in poplar require careful management and selection of clones, especially when monoculture plantations are planned to be introduced [42,43,113,114,115].

Figure 4. Populus ×canadensis Moench (P. ×euroamericana Guiner) as a high greenery screen for multi-storey’s residential buildings - sheltering functions against the traffic, Sobieskiego Street, Warsaw, Poland (J. Łukaszkiewicz 06.2019).

Figure 4. Populus ×canadensis Moench (P. ×euroamericana Guiner) as a high greenery screen for multi-storey’s residential buildings - sheltering functions against the traffic, Sobieskiego Street, Warsaw, Poland (J. Łukaszkiewicz 06.2019).

Figure 5. Populus nigra L. ‘Italica’ planted repeatedly in regular groups of four trees each, creating a green wall along the interior borders of “Field of Mars” - one of the most important interior of Silesia Park in Chorzów, Poland (B. Fortuna-Antoszkiewicz, 2014).

Figure 5. Populus nigra L. ‘Italica’ planted repeatedly in regular groups of four trees each, creating a green wall along the interior borders of “Field of Mars” - one of the most important interior of Silesia Park in Chorzów, Poland (B. Fortuna-Antoszkiewicz, 2014).

3.4. The Use of Berlin Poplar in Afforestation of Urban Landscapes - Field Research

Regarding the literature on the use of poplars in urban conditions [117,118,119,127,128], our field research (chapter 2.) focuses on one selected cultivar - the Berlin poplar (chapter 3.3.). Our choice to study this particular cultivar is dictated by its many interesting characteristics, making it, in the past, a good choice for planting in cities. Therefore, by examining selected locations in Poland, we wanted to determine how the Berlin poplar performed in urban conditions. This cultivar was bred around 1870 in the botanical garden in Berlin as the male form of Populus ×berolinensis (K. Koch)Dippel ‘Berlin’. Then, at the end of the 19th century, at the Petrovsko-Razum Agricultural Academy near Moscow, female forms were bred: P. ×berolinensis (K. Koch)Dippel ‘Petrowskyana’ (the so-called Tsar’s poplar) and P. ×berolinensis(K. Koch)Dippel ‘Razumovskyana’. It tolerates dry urban environments and dry soil very well; it has also been successfully tested on a gravel-sand base with an inaccessible groundwater level. It grows well even on sloping localities. Conversely, P. ×berolinensis (K. Koch)Dippel is susceptible to cancer as it is planted in locations with high groundwater levels, flooded or with high air moisture levels. This cultivar is suitable for urban areas due to its narrow oval crown, which will keep even old. It has a straight, continuous trunk. That is why it is recommended especially for planting in lines or rows, e.g., along streets or avenues. Berlin poplar wood is stronger than other poplar species and cultivars. That is why these trees growing in the alleys do not suffer much from fractures in the canopy. Despite inhibiting factors of the urban environment, this poplar can grow very fast, reaching up to 30 m in height and a trunk diameter at breast height (DBH) of 1,0 m. Leaves can also accumulate PM from the air, so Berlin poplars possess phytoremediation abilities too.

Berlin poplar’s lifespan varies, and, in good health, it can easily reach over 60 years and even more (as indicates our observations). However, exchanging overmatured trees over 40 years old for younger specimens is sometimes advisable in urban areas. Such a policy of exchanging older generations of trees is similar to how urban plantations are maintained. A distinctive feature of the female forms of the Berlin poplar is the production of seed down, which is abundantly secreted by the trees in May. In the context of use, especially in streets, avenues and squares, this is a very undesirable factor, which may result in abandoning the use of female forms in urban areas. Attention should also be paid to the shallow root systems of these trees, which may cause damage to paved surfaces and, in consequence, should be planted in locations that allow sufficient space for rooting (e.g., wide grassy sections along streets, etc.). During past decades, Berlin poplars were used in urban locations in Central European countries, like Czech or Poland.

Because, among many other species and cultivars, Berlin poplars are much better suited for planting in cities, our research was focused on two representative locations in Poland where such trees were used in the context of the urban environment. The first research area is Rakowiecka Street in Warsaw, and the second is the great Ziętek Promenade in Silesia Park in Chorzów.

Example 1. The research area of Rakowiecka Street in Warsaw, Poland

Rakowiecka Street in Warsaw began to be intensively built in the second half of the 19th century, and this process culminated in the 1950s. The characteristic number 8 building of the WULS-SGGW headquarters was partially put into service in 1929. In 1930, Rakowiecka Street was upgraded with road infrastructure with green belts planted with Berlin poplars (Populus ×berolinensis (K. Koch)Dippel ‘Petrowskyana’); young trees were 3.5 m high, with spacing of 8.0 - 10.0 m in each row [129].

Figure 6. The magnificent streetside row of Populus ×berolinensis (K. Koch)Dippel ‘Petrowskyana’ along Rakowiecka Street, Warsaw, Poland - visible the adjusted size of the trees to the street scale! (J. Łukaszkiewicz, 2017).

Figure 6. The magnificent streetside row of Populus ×berolinensis (K. Koch)Dippel ‘Petrowskyana’ along Rakowiecka Street, Warsaw, Poland - visible the adjusted size of the trees to the street scale! (J. Łukaszkiewicz, 2017).

The street buildings and rows of poplars survived the destruction of World War II. Already in the 1940s, trees were large enough to provide shade for the SGGW building and protection against noise and pollution from the street [129] (Figure 7). However, in the late 1970s, specific problems were already noticed related to the collision of rapidly growing trees with the infrastructure of buildings and the traction network [130]. In addition, the problem was the shallow root system of poplars that lifted the paving slabs. Trees were planted too shallow, and permeable surfaces were not used then. One of the significant inconveniences of lining the street with the female form of Berlin poplar (Populus ×berolinensis (K. Koch)Dippel ‘Petrowskyana’) was the annual abundant release of seed down (cotton-like), which disturbed people and caused much littering of the street and apartments in nearby houses. In the following years, the Berlin poplars gradually fell out during infrastructure modernization or due to weather anomalies. In 2024, only a few trees remain from the avenue that existed in past decades, which are the subject of our further measurements and analyses.

Figure 7. The cross section of Rakowiecka Street in Warsaw - eastwards direction (a), lined with two-sided rows of Populus ×berolinensis (K. Koch)Dippel ‘Petrowskyana’ (1973), and a view of Rakowiecka Street near the WULS-SGGW headquarters builing (b) in 1973 [129].

Figure 7. The cross section of Rakowiecka Street in Warsaw - eastwards direction (a), lined with two-sided rows of Populus ×berolinensis (K. Koch)Dippel ‘Petrowskyana’ (1973), and a view of Rakowiecka Street near the WULS-SGGW headquarters builing (b) in 1973 [129].

We analyzed historical iconographic materials [130,131] and made field measurements, i.e., measurements of trees, the street and the facade of the WULS-SGGW building. The results are presented in Figure 6, Figure 7 and Figure 8 and Table 2. Figure 8a from 1925 shows the measured heights of the building’s floors during field tests. Based on the analysis of the remaining illustrations (Figure 8B-H), it can be concluded that the trees planted at the turn of the 1920s and 1930s were homogeneous plant material with equal parameters (height of approximately 3.5 m). The trees reach the windows of the high ground floor of the WULS-SGGW building (Figure 8B). In 1937, it can be seen that the trees reached the windows of the first floor of the SGGW building, reaching a height of approximately 8.5 m (Figure 8C). In 1939, the trees reached the windows of the second floor of the WULS-SGGW building, reaching a height of approximately 11.0 m (Figure 8D). In the illustration from 1947, the trees reach the roof of the SGGW building, reaching a height of approximately 20 m (Figure 8E). In 1955, the trees obscured the SGGW building and reached a height of approximately 21 m (Figure 8F). In 1975, the trees were already mature and reached a height of approximately 22-25 m (Figure 8G). At the beginning of the 21st century, the poplars remaining from the original forest cover had already reached their maximum size; in 2012, their height was 24.0 m; in 2017 - 28.0 m; and 2024 - 30.5 m. Due to collisions with buildings and technical infrastructure, the trees were cut, and their shape was deformed. The illustration from 2017 shows partial losses in the street trees, and the trees in the planted avenue are getting old and falling out (Figure 8H).

Field measurements showed that Populus ×berolinensis (K. Koch)Dippel ‘Petrowskyana’ planted at the turn of the 1920s and 1930s of the 20th century along Rakowiecka Street in Warsaw (section Boboli Street - Niepodległości Av.) achieved in 2013 average trunk girths 220 - 235 cm (measured at 1.3 m - breast’s high), and in 2024 an average of 241.3 cm (Table 2). Tree age parameters were calculated and correlated with illustrations in individual years and heights (Figure 9). On this basis, it was estimated that in 1930, the trees were approximately three years old; in 1937 - approximately. 8-10 years, 1937 - 12 years, 1947 - 20 years, 1955 - 28 years, 1975 - 48 years, and 2017, already approx. 90-95 years, and now in 2024 - approx. 97-102 years. The figure shows averaged values or rounded to the upper or lower values for better data visualization.

Figure 8. The sequence of illustrations (A-I) of Rakowiecka Street in Warsaw showing the growth of Populus ×berolinensis Dippel ‘Petrowskyana’ (1925-2024) near the WULS-SGGW former headquarters building [authors own elaboration based on historical photos of Rakowiecka Street in Warsaw (photos [131] and own photo: Łukaszkiewicz, 23.02.2024).

Figure 8. The sequence of illustrations (A-I) of Rakowiecka Street in Warsaw showing the growth of Populus ×berolinensis Dippel ‘Petrowskyana’ (1925-2024) near the WULS-SGGW former headquarters building [authors own elaboration based on historical photos of Rakowiecka Street in Warsaw (photos [131] and own photo: Łukaszkiewicz, 23.02.2024).

Table 2 shows the descriptive statistics of average measurements of tree height and trunk circumference at a height of 1.3 m and compares the significance of differences in the average values of these measurements. In order to compare the significance of differences between the average values of tree height and trunk circumference at a height of 1.3 m, the student’s t-test was used (after performing a test of compliance with the normal distribution using the Shapiro-Wilk test). In the case of data from 2024, the number of trees (n=12) was lower than in 2012 (n=16) because some trees fell due to weather anomalies, poor health, or infrastructure modernization. Based on the results obtained, it can be concluded that in the tested sample, both the trunk circumference and the height of the trees increased over the 12 years, but statistically significant growth was only observed in the case of height.

It was also checked whether the increase in tree height and circumference depended on the spacing between the examined trees; Spearman’s rank correlation analysis was used. The average spacing between the examined trees was 10.3 m, the smallest distance between them was 8.0 m, and the largest was 16.0 m (SD = 2.25 m). A negative relationship was observed in the case of height, but despite the coefficient value r = 0.64 indicating a relatively significant relationship, it was statistically insignificant (r = -0.64; t = -2.21; p = 0.0627). In the case of trunk circumference, a similar direction of relationship was observed, which was also statistically insignificant, but the strength of this relationship was much weaker (r=-0.14; t=-0.36; p=0.7256). This direction means that as the distance between trees decreases, the value of the analyzed parameters increases.

Figure 9. The schematic habits and estimated height of Populus ×berolinensis (K. Koch)Dippel ‘Petrowskyana’ along Rakowiecka Street in Warsaw in chosen years of period 1930-2024, located near the WULS-SGGW former headquarters building. The authors’ elaboration based on pictures from Figure 8. photo A-I ([131] and own photo: Łukaszkiewicz, 23.02.2024).

Figure 9. The schematic habits and estimated height of Populus ×berolinensis (K. Koch)Dippel ‘Petrowskyana’ along Rakowiecka Street in Warsaw in chosen years of period 1930-2024, located near the WULS-SGGW former headquarters building. The authors’ elaboration based on pictures from Figure 8. photo A-I ([131] and own photo: Łukaszkiewicz, 23.02.2024).

Example 2. The research area of Ziętek Promenade in Silesia Park in Chorzów, Poland

Figure 10. The form of a high, even wall of Populus ×berolinensis (K. Koch) Dippel ‘Berlin’ in Silesia Park’s Ziętek Promenade, Chorzów, Poland (B. Fortuna-Antoszkiewicz, 2014).

Figure 10. The form of a high, even wall of Populus ×berolinensis (K. Koch) Dippel ‘Berlin’ in Silesia Park’s Ziętek Promenade, Chorzów, Poland (B. Fortuna-Antoszkiewicz, 2014).

Silesia Park (The Voivodship Park of Culture and Recreation in Chorzów, Poland) with a total area of ca 600 ha, was established on land of poor quality, partially degraded by mining and metallurgy industries. The main objective was to improve the quality of life for residents of Silesia by creating the bulk enclave of greenery combined with a versatile programme for active recreation in this partially degraded area. After many years, the Silesia Park has become an example of a successful restoration and naturalization of the anthropogenic landscape [132,133].

The Ziętek Promenade in Silesia Park is a main, wide walkway connecting the most attractive park programme elements and is the backbone of Park composition. Regular tree arrangements, such as multi-row bosquets in a checkerboard pattern, are the leading theme of the spatial composition. The original design, including vegetation, is preserved and visible. The main feature of that Park’s section is a magnificent double-row of Berlin poplar’s male form (Populus ×berolinensis (K. Koch)Dippel ‘Berlin’). It runs along the banks of the Park’s great pond, constituting a uniform “living wall” which ideally fits the scale of the vast Park’s interior. In 2016, at the end of the promenade near Al. Główna, the section of an old poplar row, was exchanged for plantings of new trees of the same specimen [46, 146, Fortuna et al. 2017; Łukaszkiewicz et al. 2022].

In the first step we analyzed iconographic materials and made field measurements. The results are presented in Figure 11 and Figure 12 and Table 3 and Table 4. Based on the data obtained, it can be concluded that the trees planted in the 1950s on the Park’s promenade reached a height of 4.5 m at the end of the 1950s (the estimated year was 1959), which was equal to the height of the park lamp (Figure 11a). On this basis, the remaining parameters were estimated: width equal to 2.0 m and spacing equal to 6.0 m. Next, the average height of poplars at the turn of the 1960s and 1970s was estimated (the estimated year was 1965), which was already 9.0 m, and the width of the crown was 6.0 m because the trees touched each other with their crowns, building a homogeneous wall like the row of trees (Figure 11b). In turn, the analysis of photos and own field tree inventory from 2014 shows that their parameters were, on average, as follows: height - approx. 24.0 m, crown width - ca. 8.0 m, mean trunk girth at 1.3 m: ca ± 197 cm [132].

Figure 11. The analyzed sequence of historical photographs of the Silesia Park in Chorzów, Poland showing the double row of Berlin poplars (Populus ×berolinensis (K. Koch)Dippel ‘Berlin)’ in the Park in Chorzów (the authors’ elaboration): A) view of the promenade from the late 1950s [134], B) view of the promenade from the turn of the 1960s and 1970s [135], C) view of the avenue of adult poplars in 2014 (photo by J. Łukaszkiewicz, 2014) [132].

Figure 11. The analyzed sequence of historical photographs of the Silesia Park in Chorzów, Poland showing the double row of Berlin poplars (Populus ×berolinensis (K. Koch)Dippel ‘Berlin)’ in the Park in Chorzów (the authors’ elaboration): A) view of the promenade from the late 1950s [134], B) view of the promenade from the turn of the 1960s and 1970s [135], C) view of the avenue of adult poplars in 2014 (photo by J. Łukaszkiewicz, 2014) [132].

On this basis, the age of the trees was assessed approximately: ±3 years in 1959, ±10 years in 1965 and ±65 years in 2014 (Figure 12). Knowing the poplars average height of individual years, it can be concluded that these trees, having favourable conditions for development (city park space), achieved the most significant growth of 8.5 times in approximately 6-10 years (between 1959 and 1965) and relatively slower during the mature phase of life - over the next ca. fifty years (between 1965 and 2014) equal only 2.5 times. For better data visualization, the following figure uses average values or extreme ranges (Figure 12).

Due to the ageing of the original poplars and for safety reasons, the gradual replacement of trees in the Ziętka Promenade began in 2016. Following the original project assumptions, new Berlin poplars of the same variety were planted instead of the old trees. In the first section of the poplar row, replaced on April 2016, 37 new young poplars were planted (planting material of girth 12-14 cm).

Our next step was to value descriptive statistics, estimated for measurements collected on ten newly planted Berlin poplars (Populus ×berolinensis (K. Koch)Dippel ‘Berlin’) in 2016, 2021 and 2023. Based on the results obtained, it should be concluded that with age, there is a systematic increase in all the parameters examined (height, trunk circumference, crown width).

Next, the average annual increase in the studied parameters and the strength of the relationship between age and the average growth rate of the studied trees was estimated. Sperman’s rank correlation analysis was used to estimate the strength of the relationship, and the growth rate was estimated using the obtained average values of the studied characteristics and dividing by the appropriate number of years. Table 3 summarizes the results of these analyses. They show that between the fifth and eighth year of life of Berlin poplars, the trunk circumference grows most intensively, while in the following years, the trunk growth slows down in favour of the crown growth (Table 4).

4. Discussion

5. Conclusions

• • The following conclusions highlight the complex interplay between the advantages and challenges of integrating poplars into urban landscapes, emphasizing the need for holistic and adaptive approaches to urban greening initiatives.
• • The diverse genus Populus sp. presents a promising avenue for enhancing urban greenery due to its rapid growth, adaptability, and contributions to environmental quality.
• • Despite their ecological benefits, the variable lifespans of different poplar species pose challenges that necessitate strategic urban planning and management practices.
• • Poplars contribute significantly to air quality improvement, carbon sequestration, soil stabilization, and biodiversity enhancement, enhancing the ecological resilience of urban areas.
• • Proper species selection, planting techniques, and maintenance strategies are crucial for maximizing the benefits of poplars while addressing concerns related to their shorter lifespans.
• • The shorter lifespan of certain poplar species presents challenges and opportunities, allowing for faster adaptation to changing urban conditions but requiring careful replanting and maintenance efforts.
• • Concerns surrounding allergenic tendencies, invasive characteristics, and the need for community acceptance highlight the complexities of integrating poplars into urban landscapes.
• • The integration of poplars in urban greenery initiatives necessitates comprehensive planning considering species diversity, spatial distribution, and long-term maintenance to ensure sustainability.
• • The dynamic nature of urban environments calls for innovative approaches that leverage the benefits of poplar while addressing challenges, allowing for adaptable and resilient green spaces.
• • Continued research is essential to develop comprehensive strategies that optimize the benefits of poplars in urban settings while mitigating risks associated with their variable lifespans and ecological characteristics.
• • Collaboration between researchers, urban planners, policymakers, and communities is crucial for harnessing poplar’s potential in urban environments, fostering sustainable and livable cities for future generations.
• • Poplars, because of their rapid growth, the enormous mass of these leaves and the rapid attainment of large sizes, have a positive impact on the city and the urban environment for phytomedicinal purposes (cleaning the surface with plants), shading, evaporation, oxygen production, cooling the atmosphere, providing a series of ecosystem services.
• • Polish examples of Berlin poplars show that the male form does not produce seeds in the ground and is practically a much better specimen for the city. This relationship confirms that if we choose a suitable variety of poplar for the proper purpose, we might quickly get very good results in biomass production and ascetic values of urban greenery.

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