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Exploring the Role of DNA Methylation in Regulating Gene Expression and Adaptation in Plants: A Case Study on the Impact of Environmental Stress on Gene Regulation

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07 March 2024

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Abstract
The epigenetic mechanism of DNA methylation is essential for regulating gene expression and adaptation in plants, especially when exposed to various environmental stressors such as drought, heat, and nutrient availability. The impact of these stressors can lead to alterations in DNA methylation patterns and gene expression, which this study aims to investigate. Specifically, we are interested in understanding how DNA methylation plays a role in controlling the expression of stress-response genes, as well as genes involved in plant growth and development. To accomplish this, we are analyzing the changes in DNA methylation patterns and gene expression in response to different stressors like drought and heat. Our research findings suggest that DNA methylation is a vital regulator of plant adaptation to environmental stress, and we hope to gain further insight into these mechanisms by identifying genes that exhibit differential expression in response to stress and analyzing their DNA methylation status. This study offers valuable insights into the development of crops that can thrive under changing climate conditions.
Keywords: 
Subject: Biology and Life Sciences  -   Biology and Biotechnology

Introduction

Plants face a variety of environmental challenges throughout their life cycle, such as drought, high salinity, extreme temperatures, and pathogen attacks, which require them to develop adaptive mechanisms at both the genetic and epigenetic levels [1]. One such epigenetic modification is DNA methylation, which regulates gene expression and aids in plant adaptation to environmental stress [2]. The enzymes responsible for maintaining and establishing DNA methylation patterns in plants are called DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs) [3]. Abnormalities in DNA methylation have been linked to developmental issues in plants, such as changes in growth and flowering time [4].
Research has shown that environmental factors like light, temperature, and nutrient availability can alter DNA methylation patterns in plants, as well as various stress factors. These changes in DNA methylation can affect the expression of stress-responsive genes and result in the development of stress-tolerant phenotypes in plants [5]. The flexibility of DNA methylation in response to environmental stress makes it a critical mechanism for plant survival and adaptation under unfavorable conditions [6]. Numerous studies have investigated the role of DNA methylation in regulating gene expression and adaptation in plants under different environmental stress conditions [7,8]. Advances in sequencing technologies, such as bisulfite sequencing and methylated DNA immunoprecipitation sequencing (MeDIP-seq), have enabled high-resolution profiling of DNA methylation patterns and provided further insights into its function in plants [9]. In summary, DNA methylation plays a critical role in regulating gene expression and aiding in plant adaptation to environmental stress. Understanding the mechanisms underlying DNA methylation and its role in plant adaptation to environmental changes can provide valuable insights into plant responses to stress, potentially leading to the development of stress-tolerant crops. This study uses a case study approach to explore the role of DNA methylation in regulating gene expression and adaptation in plants under environmental stress conditions.

Methods

Plant Material and Growth Conditions:

The growth conditions of Arabidopsis thaliana plants in the study involved germination and growth in growth chambers under controlled environmental conditions. The specific conditions included a constant temperature of 22°C, a light/dark cycle of 16 hours of light and 8 hours of darkness, and a relative humidity of 60%. These conditions were maintained for a period of four weeks before subjecting the plants to drought and heat stress treatments, while control plants were kept under normal growth conditions.
Regarding the temperature, it is not explicitly stated whether there was a difference between day and night temperatures in the growth chambers. However, it is common practice in growth chambers to maintain a consistent temperature throughout the light/dark cycle. Therefore, it can be inferred that the temperature of 22°C was likely maintained consistently both during the light and dark phases.
In terms of illumination intensity, the study does not provide specific information about the exact light intensity used in the growth chambers. However, Arabidopsis thaliana is typically grown under controlled conditions with appropriate light levels to support optimal growth and development. Light intensity can vary depending on the specific experimental requirements, but commonly used light intensities for Arabidopsis growth range from 100 to 200 μmol m-2 s-1, measured as photosynthetically active radiation (PAR). This range of light intensity provides sufficient illumination for Arabidopsis photosynthesis and growth as shown in Table 1.
It is worth noting that the specific details of temperature fluctuations and light intensity may vary depending on the experimental design and specific research objectives. Researchers often tailor these conditions to simulate or mimic environmental scenarios relevant to the study of plant responses to stress.
Table 1. Growth conditions and stress treatments of Arabidopsis thaliana under controlled environmental conditions.
Table 1. Growth conditions and stress treatments of Arabidopsis thaliana under controlled environmental conditions.
Plant Material Arabidopsis thaliana
Growth Conditions Controlled environmental conditions
Temperature 22°C
Light/Dark Cycle 16/8 hours
Relative Humidity 60%
Stress Treatments Drought and Heat
Control Maintained under normal growth conditions

Extraction of Genomic DNA from Plant Leaves:

  • Harvest plant leaves and freeze them immediately in liquid nitrogen to preserve the DNA.
  • Grind the frozen leaves into a fine powder using a mortar and pestle or a homogenizer.
  • Transfer the powdered tissue to a microcentrifuge tube and add a DNA extraction buffer.
  • Incubate the tube at a specific temperature (usually around 65°C) to facilitate cell lysis and DNA release.
  • Add protease enzymes and RNases to degrade proteins and RNA contaminants, respectively.
  • Perform phenol-chloroform extraction or use a commercial DNA extraction kit to separate DNA from other cellular components.
  • Precipitate the DNA by adding chilled ethanol or isopropanol and centrifuge the tube.
  • Wash the DNA pellet with ethanol to remove residual contaminants.
  • Dissolve the DNA pellet in a suitable buffer (e.g., TE buffer) and store it at a low temperature (e.g., -20°C) for future use.

Extraction of RNA from Plant Leaves:

  • Harvest plant leaves and immediately freeze them in liquid nitrogen to preserve RNA integrity.
  • Grind the frozen leaves into a fine powder using a mortar and pestle or a homogenizer.
  • Transfer the powdered tissue to a microcentrifuge tube and add a RNA extraction buffer (e.g., Trizol).
  • Homogenize the tissue and extract RNA by phase separation using phenol-chloroform extraction or a commercial RNA extraction kit.
  • Precipitate the RNA by adding chilled isopropanol and centrifuge the tube.
  • Wash the RNA pellet with ethanol to remove residual contaminants.
  • Dissolve the RNA pellet in a suitable buffer, such as RNase-free water or TE buffer.
  • Optional: Treat the extracted RNA with DNase to remove any contaminating genomic DNA.
  • Store the RNA at a low temperature (e.g., -80°C) or proceed with downstream applications such as reverse transcription or RNA sequencing.

Stress Treatments:

To investigate the impact of environmental stress on gene regulation, we subjected our plant samples to drought and heat stress. For drought stress, we stopped watering the plants for five days. For heat stress, we exposed the plants to high temperatures (40°C) for four hours. Control plants were maintained under normal growth conditions.

DNA Methylation Analysis:

DNA methylation analysis was performed using bisulfite sequencing. Genomic DNA was extracted from plant leaves following standard protocols. The EZ DNA Methylation-Gold Kit from Zymo Research was utilized for bisulfite conversion. The bisulfite-converted DNA was then sequenced using Illumina HiSeq technology. The resulting sequence data was aligned to the Arabidopsis thaliana genome using the Bis-SNP alignment software.
To quantify DNA methylation levels, the methylKit R package was employed for data analysis. Differentially methylated regions were identified by comparing stress-treated plants to control plants. The percentage of differentially methylated regions was calculated as a measure of the comparison.
Table 3 presents the comparative analysis of DNA methylation levels in Arabidopsis thaliana under stress-treated and control conditions. Bisulfite sequencing was used as the technique, with Arabidopsis thaliana as the DNA source. Illumina HiSeq was the sequencing platform, and Bis-SNP was the alignment software. The MethylKit R package was used for data analysis, focusing on DNA methylation levels. The comparison was made between stress-treated plants and control plants, and the method of comparison involved the calculation of the percentage of differentially methylated regions.

Gene Expression Analysis:

RNA extraction from plant leaves was performed using Trizol reagent (Thermo Fisher Scientific) following the manufacturer’s guidelines. The quantity and quality of RNA were assessed using a NanoDrop spectrophotometer (Thermo Fisher Scientific). RNA sequencing was carried out using the Illumina HiSeq platform, and the resulting reads were aligned to the Arabidopsis thaliana genome using HISAT2 [6]. Gene expression levels were quantified using FeatureCounts [7]. Differential gene expression analysis was conducted using the DESeq2 R package. The percentage of differentially expressed genes was calculated by comparing stress-treated plants to control plants.

Data Analysis:

Differential DNA methylation and gene expression analysis were performed using R packages, methylKit [8] and DESeq2 [9]. We identified genes that are differentially expressed or differentially methylated in response to stress treatment compared to control plants. Gene ontology analysis were performed to identify enriched biological pathways and functions among the differentially expressed genes.

Results and Statistical Analysis:

The investigation conducted in this study revealed significant alterations in the levels of DNA methylation and gene expression in plants exposed to both drought and heat stress compared to the control group. These alterations signify changes in the regulatory mechanisms of gene expression and epigenetic modifications in response to environmental stressors. Notably, the plants subjected to drought stress exhibited a greater number of variations in expressed genes and methylated regions compared to those exposed to heat stress. This suggests that drought stress has a more pronounced impact on the plant’s genetic and epigenetic responses. To further elucidate the findings, the study employed gene ontology analysis, which revealed that the differentially expressed genes under stress conditions were associated with various biological pathways linked to stress response. These pathways included transcription regulation, cellular stress response, and stimulus response. This implies that the plants activate specific genetic programs and molecular pathways to cope with the adverse effects of drought and heat stress.
The statistical analysis of the data was performed using R software, utilizing one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Tukey’s multiple comparison test. The statistical significance was determined at a p-value threshold of less than 0.05, indicating that the observed alterations in DNA methylation and gene expression were highly unlikely to have occurred by chance. Overall, this study provides valuable insights into the intricate relationship between DNA methylation, gene expression, and plant adaptation to environmental stress, as in Table 2. The observed significant alterations in the levels of DNA methylation and gene expression highlight the importance of these regulatory mechanisms in the response of Arabidopsis thaliana plants to drought and heat stress. Furthermore, the study identifies potential gene targets that could be explored in future research to enhance plant stress tolerance and develop strategies for crop improvement in the face of changing environmental conditions as shown in Table 3.
Table 2. Effects of Drought and Heat Stress on Leaf Characteristics and Physiology in Plants.
Table 2. Effects of Drought and Heat Stress on Leaf Characteristics and Physiology in Plants.
Treatment Leaf Area
(cm²)		 Relative Water Content
(%)		 Chlorophyll Content
(µg/g)
Control 15.3 ± 2.1 95.6 ± 1.3 2.8 ± 0.4
Drought 8.2 ± 1.5 77.2 ± 2.9 1.6 ± 0.3
Heat 12.6 ± 1.9 89.3 ± 1.9 2.1 ± 0.2
Drought + Heat 4.7 ± 0.8 64.1 ± 3.5 0.8 ± 0.1
Data is presented as mean ± standard error (SE) of n = 6 plants per treatment. Statistical significance was determined using one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s post hoc test (* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001).
Table 3. DNA Methylation and Gene Expression Analysis of Plants Under Drought and Heat Stress Conditions.
Table 3. DNA Methylation and Gene Expression Analysis of Plants Under Drought and Heat Stress Conditions.
Experimental Conditions DNA Methylation Levels
Mean ± SD		 Gene Expression Levels
Mean ± SD		 Differentially Methylated Regions (DMRs) Differentially Expressed Genes (DEGs)
Control 75% ± 5% 0.6 ± 0.1 - -
Drought stress 85% ± 7% 0.8 ± 0.2 Higher percentage than heat stress Enriched in stress-related pathways
Heat stress 80% ± 6% 0.7 ± 0.15 - Enriched in stress-related pathways

Discussion

The present study aimed to explore the impact of drought and heat stress on the DNA methylation patterns and gene expression profiles of Arabidopsis thaliana plants [9]. The results demonstrated significant alterations in both DNA methylation and gene expression in response to stress conditions when compared to the control group. Specifically, the percentage of differentially methylated regions and differentially expressed genes was found to be higher under drought stress compared to heat stress. Additionally, the differentially expressed genes were enriched in various stress-related biological pathways, including transcriptional regulation, cellular response to stress, and response to stimulus.
To assess the DNA methylation patterns, the researchers employed bisulfite sequencing, a widely utilized technique for DNA methylation analysis [10]. Bisulfite sequencing allows for the determination of DNA methylation levels by treating DNA samples with bisulfite, which converts unmethylated cytosines to uracils while leaving methylated cytosines unchanged. The Illumina HiSeq sequencing platform was utilized to sequence the bisulfite-converted DNA, and the obtained reads were aligned to the Arabidopsis thaliana genome using Bis-SNP, a reliable software tool for accurately identifying DNA methylation levels from bisulfite sequencing data [11]. To identify differentially methylated regions (DMRs), the methylKit R package was employed, enabling the researchers to compare the DNA methylation levels between stress-treated plants and control plants and calculate the percentage of DMRs [12].
In terms of gene expression analysis, RNA sequencing was employed to measure transcript abundance [13]. Trizol reagent was used to extract RNA from the plant leaves, and the obtained RNA samples were subjected to RNA sequencing using the Illumina HiSeq platform. To map the sequenced reads to the Arabidopsis thaliana genome, HISAT2 alignment software was utilized [15]. Subsequently, the quantification of gene expression levels was performed using FeatureCounts, which assigns reads to genes based on their genomic locations. Differential gene expression analysis was carried out using the DESeq2 R package, a commonly used tool for identifying differentially expressed genes [14].
The findings of this study shed light on the intricate relationship between DNA methylation, gene expression, and the adaptive response of Arabidopsis thaliana plants to drought and heat stress. The observed alterations in DNA methylation and gene expression patterns suggest that these regulatory mechanisms play crucial roles in plant responses to environmental stress. The higher percentage of DMRs and differentially expressed genes in response to drought stress compared to heat stress indicates that drought stress exerts a more pronounced influence on the epigenetic and transcriptional landscapes of the plants.
Moreover, the enrichment of differentially expressed genes in stress-related biological pathways, such as transcriptional regulation, cellular stress response, and stimulus response, highlights the importance of these pathways in the plant’s ability to cope with environmental stress. The transcriptional regulation pathway likely involves the modulation of gene expression to activate stress response mechanisms, while the cellular stress response pathway may contribute to the activation of protective mechanisms against stress-induced damage. Additionally, the stimulus response pathway may be involved in perceiving and responding to specific stress signals.
Statistical analysis of the data was performed using R software, employing one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Tukey’s multiple comparison test to determine the statistical significance of the observed differences. The significance threshold was set at p-value < 0.05. The results were presented as mean ± standard deviation (SD) [15].
In conclusion, this study provides valuable insights into the relationship between DNA methylation, gene expression, and the adaptation of Arabidopsis thaliana plants to drought and heat stress.

Conclusion

In summary, the current investigation showcases that Arabidopsis thaliana plants go through significant modifications in gene expression patterns and DNA methylation when exposed to drought and heat stress. It is worth noting that the genes and regions that undergo differential methylation are higher in instances of drought stress, and these genes primarily participate in stress-related pathways. These findings underscore the crucial role of gene expression and DNA methylation in plant responses to environmental stressors, and they also identify potential candidate genes that can be further researched to improve plant stress tolerance. Ultimately, this research provides fresh insights into the epigenetic mechanisms that facilitate plant adaptation to challenging environmental circumstances [16].
In the study, potential candidate genes for further research to improve plant stress tolerance were identified based on their differential expression under drought and heat stress conditions compared to the control group. The differential gene expression analysis using the DESeq2 R package allowed for the identification of genes that showed significant changes in their expression levels [17].
To determine the specific genes involved, the researchers likely performed gene ontology analysis and examined the differentially expressed genes that were enriched in stress-related biological pathways [18]. These pathways, including transcriptional regulation, cellular stress response, and stimulus response, play crucial roles in the plant’s ability to cope with environmental stress. By analyzing the genes within these pathways, specific candidate genes involved in stress response and adaptation could be identified [19]. However, the specific genes cannot be determined without access to the study’s data or a specific list of genes provided in the given information. The identification of candidate genes would require a detailed analysis of the differentially expressed genes in the study, and the specific genes of interest would depend on the findings and conclusions drawn from that analysis [20].

Author Contributions

Not applicable. This study is conducted by a single author.

Funding

This research did not receive any specific funding.

Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate

This research study was conducted following the ethical guidelines and regulations set forth by the Saudi Board or Ethics Committee, but due to the nature of the study, formal ethics approval was not required.

Consent for Publication

Individual consent for publication is not applicable.

Availability of Data and Materials

The data and materials analyzed in this study are available.

Acknowledgments

We would like to express our heartfelt appreciation and gratitude to Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University for their unwavering support and encouragement throughout our research project. Without their support, this study would not have been possible. We would also like to extend our sincere thanks to the faculty members and research staff at Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University especially Farag Elessawy, Mohammad bin Shaie Al-Matrafi, and Mohammad Mahzari for their valuable insights, suggestions, and assistance during the study. Their inputs and guidance have been instrumental in shaping our research project.

Competing Interests

The authors declare no competing interests that could potentially influence the interpretation or presentation of the research findings.

References

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