3.1. Microtubules
MTs are a significant component of the cytoskeletal network in eukaryotic cells, forming a dynamic network of polymeric filaments distributed throughout the cytoplasm. MTs play pivotal roles in numerous cellular processes, such as cell division, intracellular transport, motility, and organelle positioning. MTs are hollowed-out tubes formed from α-tubulin and β-tubulin (αβ-tubulin) heterodimers that are polarized and typically oriented toward the cell periphery [
79]. The polarity, a crucial requirement for MT function, results from the head-to-tail polymerization of tubulin dimers with α-tubulin at the minus end and β-tubulin at the plus end [
80]. Notably, individual filaments can reach up to 5000 µm persistence length
in vitro, much longer than actin filaments, which can only reach persistence lengths of 15 – 20 µm [
81].
An exciting feature of tubulins is their ability to undergo various reversible post-translational modifications (PTMs), such as acetylation, phosphorylation, poly-glycylation, poly-glutamylation, (de)tyrosination, and palmitoylation [
82,
83]. Most PTMs occur in the carboxy-terminal tails of tubulin, with the notable exception of acetylation [
83]. Acetylation mainly occurs after the assembly of MTs and is associated with stabilizing the MT structure [
83]. In addition, acetylation can improve the binding and transport of molecular motors, such as kinesin-1 or dynein [
84,
85]. Another way to regulate MT functions is by non-motor MT-associated proteins (MAPs), classified as MT-stabilizers, destabilizers, or plus-end tracking proteins [
86,
87]. MAPs also play a major role in MT bundling, a process that further regulates the stability of MT filaments [
88,
89].
The MT cytoskeleton is exploited by numerous viruses throughout almost all stages of the viral life cycle [
90], including internalization [
91], viral factory formation [
92], assembly [
93], and virus release [
94].
3.6. Viroplasm Interaction with Host Components
Aside from the viral components, viroplasms interact with many cellular components, including lipid droplets, proteins, and host nucleic acids. In this context, viroplasms are found to recruit components of lipid droplets (LDs) during the replication cycle [
111]. LDs are spherical organelles that play a significant role in lipid homeostasis and contain mostly perilipins [
112]. Associations with LDs appear required to form viroplasms and infectious virus progeny by serving as a scaffold for viroplasm assembly and allowing the association between viroplasms and ER membranes [
41,
111,
113].
However, the viroplasms are also found to interact with many elements of the host cell cytoskeleton. All three primary cytoskeletal components (actin, MTs, and IFs) are restructured during RV infection. The formation of viroplasms relies on several of these reorganizations [
114,
115,
116,
117,
118,
119].
The reorganization of the MT-cytoskeleton has been shown to directly influence the coalescence and localization of viroplasms [
48], which seems a trait common among many viruses inducing the formation of membrane-less replication compartments, such as birnaviruses, reoviruses, or African swine fever viruses [
92,
120,
121,
122,
123]. In this sense, MT depolymerization drugs harm both perinuclear condensation and coalescence of the viroplasms. On the other hand, MT stabilizing drugs, such as taxol, showed no effect. In fact (Fig 2 a and b), RV infection increases stabilized MTs, as denoted by the rise of acetylated tubulin in viroplasms [
48]. Collectively, RV can subvert the cytoskeleton to assemble and maintain viroplasms.
Indeed, RV NSP2 and NSP5 have been implicated in directly interacting with tubulin in co-immunoprecipitation assays followed by western blot or mass spectrometry. However, while the interaction of NSP2 with tubulin appears very stable, the interaction with NSP5 is not consistent [
48,
124,
125,
126]. NSP5 has been pulled down with tubulin as a contaminant in RV-infected cells due to its ability to bind to NSP2 [
46,
56]. It seems that NSP5 and tubulin compete for binding to the same positively charged grooves on the NSP2 octamer [
125]. Interestingly, despite significant MT reorganization induced by NSP2 transfection, this study does not observe considerable colocalization of NSP2 and tubulin in NSP2-transfected cells. [
125]. Furthermore, NSP2 exhibits a robust binding to non-acetylated tubulin compared to acetylated tubulin. [
124]. Still, acetylated tubulin seems to accumulate in mature viroplasms [
48].
A newly identified variant of NSP2 displays varying interactions with NSP5 and acetylated tubulin, depending on the phosphorylation status of NSP2 [
124]. These two NSP2 conformations have been distinguished using two different monoclonal antibodies targeting different regions of NSP2. One conformation corresponds to viroplasmic NSP2 (vNSP2), which localizes in viroplasms. The second conformation is a cytosolic dispersed pool of NSP2 (dNSP2), which is phosphorylated at its C-terminus. Additionally, dNSP2 is weakly colocalizing with NSP5 and vNSP2 in viroplasms. Interestingly, dNSP2 resulted in a precursor of vNSP2 and can bind when phosphorylated to acetylated tubulin and hypophosphorylated NSP5. On the other hand, vNSP2 interacts with phosphorylated NSP5 and only weakly with tubulin [
124]. This outcome suggests a mechanism of viroplasm formation and assembly coordinated by phosphorylation and tubulin acetylation. In this model, dNSP2 could bind to hypophosphorylated NSP5, triggering NSP5 phosphorylation at Ser67, leading to a nucleation event and viroplasm formation. These events concomitantly initiate the reorganization of the MT network to induce favorable conditions. Following this model, the destabilization of MTs during the early stages of infection hinders the coalescence of viroplasms [
48].
Interestingly, the interaction with the MT network is not only based on NSP2-tubulin associations. In experiments using VLSs induced by co-expression of NSP5 with either NSP2 or VP2 and treated with an MT-destabilizing drug, it was shown that NSP2 confers the coalescence properties while VP2 mediates the perinuclear condensation properties. Additional research evidence that transfected NSP4 also binds and reorganizes the MT network [
127,
128,
129]. Overall, the interaction of NSP5 and NSP2 with tubulin and their phosphorylation-dependent effects on viroplasm formation remain to be fully discovered.
Some studies point to the involvement of dynein-mediated transport in the coalescence of viroplasms [
130]. NSP2 can interact with the dynein intermediate chain (DIC), mediating the ability of the viroplasm to coalesce. These findings resemble measles virus replication compartments, whose liquid-liquid phase separated replication organelles depend on dynein-mediated transport to form large inclusion and viral replication [
131]--suggesting a conserved reliance on dynein-mediated transport among diverse viruses to organize replication structures. In addition, it has been shown that viroplasms can no longer coalesce or move to the perinuclear region when the molecular motor Eg5 of the kinesin-5 family is inhibited [
48]. So far, however, no direct interaction partner has been identified, as VLS properties seem to be independent of the Eg5 function, regardless of VLS induction by NSP2 or VP2 [
48]. Moreover, RV infection halts the host cell cycle in the S/G2 phase [
132], a stage that correlates with a stabilized MT network [
133]. The RV-induced cell cycle arrest relies on the kinesin motor Eg5 and the actin and MT networks. This connection underscores the significance of a stabilized MT network for viroplasm formation, linking it with the cell cycle arrest and, consequently, RV replication [
132].
The actin cytoskeleton plays an additional important role in viroplasm dynamic and formation. In this context, actin has mainly been found to interact with VP4, but NSP4 has likewise been shown to induce actin remodeling [
134,
135,
136,
137]. VP4 is predominantly known as a structural spike protein but is also expressed as a soluble protein in the cytosol [
134]. The interaction of VP4 and actin is well known [
38,
134,
136]. It has been found that VP4 can induce actin-remodeling when expressed in the absence of other virus proteins [
136]. Thus, VP4 has an actin-binding domain (ABD, amino acid region 713 to 773) at its C-terminus and a coiled-coil domain, allowing association to actin filaments. The VP4 ABD is buried in the assembled particle, pointing to the importance of soluble VP4 in the cytoplasm [
134]. The use of a recombinant RV harboring a BAP tag in the VP8 region of VP4 (rRV/VP4-BAP) (
Figure 2 c and d) demonstrated that cytosolic VP4 plays a critical role, either directly or indirectly, in interacting with actin filaments to facilitate viroplasm formation [
137]. Similarly, as observed for Negri bodies in rabies virus (RABV)-infected cells [
138], the treatment with cytochalasin D leads to a reduced number of viroplasms in RV-infected cells.
Additional studies proved that VP4 associates with MTs, potentially in an early step of virus release [
139]. Studies have also shown that VP4 colocalizes with β-tubulin in both RV-infected and VP4-transfected cells, an interaction susceptible to disruption through MT depolymerization [
139]. Moreover, it has been hypothesized that VP4 is transported to the plasma membrane by MT molecular motors [
139]. It is plausible that the VP4 intracellular transport is differentially regulated, depending on the specific component of the cytoskeleton. It is well known that various viruses, such as flaviviruses [
140] or influenza viruses [
141] shift from actin-mediated transport to MT-associated transport at different steps of their life cycle. Transportation along the actin cytoskeleton may direct VP4 towards viroplasms to facilitate viroplasm formation. This process might involve the regulation of actin filaments and stress fiber formation by VP4, which are necessary for initiating viroplasm assembly. In contrast, the MT network may transport VP4 away from viroplasms for incorporation in the plasma membrane in an alternative TLP assembly pathway [
139]. The potential of VP4 to undergo differential transport opens new questions regarding the regulation of host cell factors.
Only sparse research is available on the interplay of RV infection and the intermediate filaments. Infection with RV induces substantial restructuring of vimentin in adherent kidney cells, whereas such reorganization is not observed in differentiated human intestinal epithelial cells. Conversely, differentiated human intestinal epithelial cells display rearrangement of other cytoskeletal elements, a phenomenon not observed in undifferentiated human intestinal epithelial cells. [
116,
142]. Further research on the role of intermediate filaments is needed, as this is a relatively unexplored area.
Despite significant progress in the research on the assembly and maintenance of viroplasms, there are still gaps in our understanding of the precise molecular mechanisms involved in their formation and organization, as well as the interplay between different cytoskeletal components and their regulatory mechanisms.