1. Introduction

2. Materials and Methods

• ### KESKEN. TÄRKEÄÄ: 7.4.2024 all Figureures, tables and Vignettes sijoitetaan omille paikoilleen. Mitään ei säilytetä lopussa. ###

3. Results

3.2. Answers to Research Questions: (3) How many Species-Specific Health-Promoting Substances do Five Selected Invasive WEPs Contain? (4) How many Alzheimer’s Disease-Preventing, Species-Specific Health-Promoting Substances do these Five selected Plants Have?

My second subtheme concerns five wild edible plants that some researchers and environmental administrators regard as “invasive alien species” that should be eradicated. Foragers and WEP researchers disagree strongly. These five invasive species provide ecosystem services such as health-promoting foods. For this paper, I checked the latest research on what health-promoting substances these five plants contain.

In the following alien-invasive WEP presentations, I use expressions like “141 (64+77) health-promoting substances…”. In parentheses, Figureure 64 is the number of health-promoting substances common to all wild edible vascular plants according to Åhlberg (2021, 2022b, and the evidence presented in this article). The second Figureure of the sum is the species-specific substances that promote health, according to the evidence presented in this article. The example of 77 species-specific substances is from the aerial parts of Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica).

The five species presented in this article are attached with the list of substances that prevent Alzheimer’s disease. I show the number of substances in the following form: 60 (18 + 42). This example is from Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica). In parentheses, the first Figureure is 18. All green vascular wild edible plants contain 18 substances that prevent Alzheimer’s disease, according to Åhlberg (2021, 2022a, 2022b, and the evidence presented in this article). The second Figureure (42) after the plus operator is the number of species-specific substances that prevent Alzheimer’s disease, according to experimental research.

3.2.1. Three Invasive Alien WEPs in Europe

Japanese Knotweed (Fallopia japonica)

HEALTH-PROMOTING PROPERTIES: I checked experimental studies and found that Japanese knotweed leaves (Fallopia japonica) have at least 141 (64+77) health-promoting substances that promote health. I take resveratrol as an example because all tissues of Japanese knotweed contain it. Resveratrol promotes health in the following ways: 1) antioxidant, 2) anti-inflammatory, 3) anticancer, 4) antiviral, 5) antidiabetic, 6) anti-obesity, 7) anti-metabolic syndrome, 8) cardiovascular protective, 9) antiplatelet, 10) anti-hypertension, 11) antiaging, 12) protects against neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease, 13) anti-stroke, 14) nephroprotective, 15) hepatoprotective, 16) delays the progression of osteoarthritis, and 17) maintains genome stability, promoting a longer and healthier life. (Leaves of Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica) contain 57 (18 + 39) substances that prevent Alzheimer's disease. I list them at the end of the species description.)

WARNINGS: Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica) contains oxalic acid. It is wise to use it with calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) sources, such as cheese or yogurt.

SUGGESTIONS FOR USE: A wise option is to use leaves and shoots of Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica) in the Mediterranean-style boiled mixtures of wild edible plants.

According to Ke & al. (2023), the Chinese have used thousands of years of rhizomes of Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica, synonyms Polygonum cuspidatum, and Reynoutria japonica) as medicine. They need to learn research on aerial parts of Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica) for food. In the conclusion of Ke & al. (2023) article, they express the need: "… aerial parts should receive more attention." Åhlberg (2020a, 2020b, and 2022) has focused on research on aerial parts. I present the results below.

Milanovića & al. (2020) and Cucu (2021) regard Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica) as a harmful invasive alien species. But this species also provides ecosystem services, which I'll present evidence of. Milanovića & al. (2020) present a general framework for discussion but do not understand the importance of foraging this species for food. According to Shimoda & Yamasaki (2016), in the homeland of this species, it is valued as a wild edible plant. It was recorded in the oldest history book in Japan in 720 AD.

According to Cucu (2021), a particular ecological service of Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica) is that bees create healthy honey from the nectar of the female flowers. Female flowers of Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica) are a great source of nectar, which is rich in fructose and glucose. Therefore, pollinating insects, such as bees, visit the flowers.

According to Shimoda & Yamasaki (2016, 449), from 927, there were written instructions on gathering Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica) spring shoots for the emperor. According to these over thousand-year-old guidelines, subjects conserve shoots in salt for later cooking. According to Shimoda & Yamasaki (2016, 453), the Japanese still use spring shoots of Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica) for cooking. In Japan, it is a trendy wild edible plant in spring. According to Nyman (2018, 6), Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica) was brought to Great Britain in the 19th century as an ornamental plant and as a food and medicinal plant. In Europe, its use for food has remained insignificant. I hope this will change because of the new experimental research on health-promoting substances of Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica).

Kallas (2023, 199 – 230) discusses Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica) as a WEP. According to Kallas (2023, 225): “I have found no historical or scientific records of people eating the leaves of our knotweeds, so I assume that they are not edible.” Åhlberg (2020a and 2022a) has found research evidence of the edibility of Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica) leaves.

According to Lachowicz & Oszmiański (2019), Japanese knotweed leaves and stems (Fallopia japonica) contain health-promoting substances suitable as raw materials for functional food. According to Lachowicz & al. (2019, 700), leaves of Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica) are an excellent source of resveratrol and piceid. According to Chen & al. (2015), piceid is polydatin. Polydatin (piceid) and resveratrol may change each other in the living organism. Basholli-Salihu & al. (2016) describes in detail how this happens. According to Chen & al. (2015), polydatin protects the nervous system. Japanese researchers Kurita & al. (2016, 31) recommend using young leaves of Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica) for food, as they do in Japan. They published their research in the Italian Journal of Food Science.

Figure 1. Foragers can use the soft new leaves of Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica) in Mediterranean-style boiled mixtures of wild edible plants. These leaves are non-toxic and contain many health-promoting substances, including resveratrol. Photo Mauri K. Åhlberg.

Figure 1. Foragers can use the soft new leaves of Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica) in Mediterranean-style boiled mixtures of wild edible plants. These leaves are non-toxic and contain many health-promoting substances, including resveratrol. Photo Mauri K. Åhlberg.

Figure 2. The Japanese boil or fry spring shoots of Fallopia japonica. They contain oxalates. Japanese knotweed spring shoots are used with food containing calcium and magnesium ions, such as cheese, whole-grain bread, or both. Photo Mauri K. Åhlberg.

Figure 2. The Japanese boil or fry spring shoots of Fallopia japonica. They contain oxalates. Japanese knotweed spring shoots are used with food containing calcium and magnesium ions, such as cheese, whole-grain bread, or both. Photo Mauri K. Åhlberg.

Kurita & al. (2016) found plenty of neochlorogenic acid in the leaves of Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica). Leaf extract of Japanse knotweed (Fallopia japonica) is a potent antioxidant. Kurita & al. (2016, 31) recommend using young leaves of Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica) for food, as they do in Japan. They published their research in the Italian Journal of Food Science.

According to Lachowicz & al. (2019, 700), leaves of Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica) are an excellent source of resveratrol and piceid. According to Chen & al. (2015), piceid is polydatin. Resveratrol may change to polydatin (piceid), and polydatin may change to resveratrol in the living organism. Basholli-Salihu & al. (2016) describes in detail how this happens. According to Chen & al. (2015), polydatin protects the nervous system. According to Girardi & al. (2022, 923), “emodin and resveratrol were detected in all plant tissues” of Fallopia japonica.

Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica) contains 141 (64+77) health-promoting substances. I have listed the 77 species-specific health-promoting substances at the end of this species description.

Resveratrol is an excellent example of the 141 health-promoting substances of Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica). I present resveratrol in more detail in the following vignette.

Vignette 9. A synthesis of how resveratrol promotes health.

According to Alesci & al. (2022), Wu & al. (2022), Zhu & al. (2022), Alauddin & al. (2021), Grinan-Ferre & al. (2021), Xiong & al. (2021), Kumar & al. (2020), Matsuno & al. (2020), Martínez & al. (2019) and Singh, A. & al (2019a) resveratrol has following health-promoting properties: 1) antioxidant, 2) anti-inflammatory, 3) anticancer, 4) antiviral, 5) antidiabetic, 6) anti-obesity, 7) anti-metabolic syndrome, 8) cardiovascular protective, 9) antiplatelet, 10) anti-hypertension, 11) antiaging, 12) protects against neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease, 13) anti-stroke, 14) nephroprotective, 15) hepatoprotective, 16) delays the progression of osteoarthritis, and 17) maintains genome stability, promoting a longer and healthier life. According to Zhua & al. (2019), resveratrol has protective effects on stress-induced depression and anxiety. They present a molecular biological mechanism for it. According to Grinan-Ferre & al. (2021), resveratrol is a powerful antioxidant and "possesses pleiotropic actions, exerting its activity through various molecular pathways." Kumar & al. (2020) state that resveratrol can cross the blood-brain barrier. Neuroinflammation is a part of Alzheimer's disease. Resveratrol prevents neuroinflammation. Alauddin, M. & al. 2021. Potential of nutraceutical in preventing the risk of cancer and metabolic syndrome: from the perspective of nutritional genomics. Cancer Plus 3(2) 1 - 18. Alesci, A. & al. 2022. Resveratrol and immune cells: A link to improve human health. Molecules 2022 27(2), 424. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27020424 Grinan-Ferre, A. & al. 2021. The pleiotropic neuroprotective effects of resveratrol in cognitive decline and Alzheimer's disease pathology: From antioxidant to epigenetic therapy. Aging Research Reviews, volume 67, article 101271, 1 – 24. Kumar, S. & al. 2020. Resveratrol, a molecule with anti-inflammatory and anticancer activities: natural product to chemical synthesis. Current Medicinal Chemistry 27, 1 – 14. Matsuno, Y. & al. 2020. Resveratrol and its related polyphenols contribute to the maintenance of genome stability. Scientific Reports, volume 10, article 5388, 1 – 10. Wu, S. & al. 2022. Effects and mechanisms of resveratrol for prevention and management of cancers: An updated review. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2022.2101428 Xiong, G. & al. 2021. Effect of resveratrol on abnormal bone remodeling and angiogenesis of subchondral bone in osteoarthritis. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Pathology 14(4) 417 – 425. Zhu, H. & al. 2022. Resveratrol protects against chronic alcohol-induced liver disease in a rat model. STEMedicine 3(3), e133. https://doi.org/10.37175/stemedicine.v3i3.133

In this paper, I have presented evidence that all vascular green plants contain 64 health-promoting substances. In addition to these, Cucu & al. (2021), Lachowicz & al. (2019), Lachowicz & Oszmiański (2019), Mikulic-Petkovsek & al. (2022), and Åhlberg (2020a) found from published research the following 77 health-promoting, species-specific substances in aerial parts of Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica): 1) 3-feruloylquinic acid, 2) 3-p-coumaroylquinic acid, 3) 4-caffeoylquinic acid, 4) 5-caffeoylquinic acid, 5) 5-p-coumaroylquinic acid, 6) anthraquinones, 7) apigenin, 8) astringin, 9) betulinic acid, 10) caffeoylquinic acids, 11) caftaric acid, 12) catechin gallate, 13) chlorogenic acid, 14) cis-resveratroloside, 15) coumarins, 16) dicaffeoylquinic acid, 17) emodin, 18) epicatechin, 19) ferulic acid, 20) flavanols, 21) flavones, 22) flavonols, 23) gallic acid, 24) galloylhexoside, 25) isorhamnetin hexoside, 26) kaempferol, 27) kaempferol hexoside, 28) kaempferol-3-rhamnoside, 29) kaempferol-3-rutinoside, 30) lignans, 31) luteolin, 32) luteoxanthin, 33) myricetin-3-rhamnoside, 34) neochlorogenic acid, 35) neochrome, 36) neoxanthin, 37) oleanolic acid, 38) p-coumaric acid, 39) piceatannol hexoside, 40) piceid, 41) polydatin, 42) proanthocyanidins, 43) procyanidin B2, 44) procyanidin dimer 1, 45) procyanidin dimer 2, 46) procyanidin dimer 3, 47) procyanidin tetramer 1, 48) procyanidin tetramer 2, 49) procyanidin tetramer 3, 50) procyanidin tetramer 4, 51) procyanidin trimer 1, 52) procyanidin trimer 2, 53) procyanidin trimer 3, 54) procyanidin trimer 4, 55) procyanidin trimer 5, 56) procyanidin trimer 6, 57) procyanidin trimer 7, 58) quercetin, 59) quercetin acetyl hexoside, 60) quercetin dihexoside, 61) quercetin-3-arabinofuranoside, 62) quercetin-3-arabinopyranoside, 63) quercetin-3-galactoside, 64) quercetin-3-glucoside (isoquercitrin), 65) quercetin-3-rhamnoside (quercitrin), 66) quercetin-3-xyloside, 67) quinones, 68) resveratrol, 69) rutin (quercetin-3-rutinoside), 70) stilbenes, 71) syringic acid, 72) t-cinnamic acid, 73) trans-coutaric acid, 74) trans-piceid 1, 75) trans-piceid 2, 76) trans-resveratroloside, and 77) ursolic acid.

Answer to the research sub-question: How many Alzheimer’s disease-preventing, species-specific health-promoting substances do the aerial parts of Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica) contain?

Out of the total 141 (64+77) health-promoting substances that Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica) has, the aerial parts of Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica) contain the following 57 (18 + 39) substances that prevent Alzheimer's disease: 1) alpha-linolenic acid, 2) ascorbic acid, 3) caffeic acid, 4) carotenoids, 5) choline, 6) dietary fibers, 7) flavonoids, 8) lutein, 9) melatonin, 10) phenolic acids, 11) phenolic compounds, 12) phenylpropanoids, 13) phytic acid, 14) polyphenols, 15) polysaccharides, 16) silicon, 17) terpenoids, 18) tocopherols, 19) 4-caffeoylquinic acid, 20) 5-caffeoylquinic acid, 21) anthraquinones, 22) apigenin, 23) betulinic acid, 24) caffeoylquinic acids. 25) catechin, 26) chlorogenic acid, 27) coumarins, 28) dicaffeoylquinic acid, 29) emodin, 30) epicatechin, 31) essential oils, 32) ferulic acid, 33) flavanols, 34) flavones, 35) flavonols, 36) gallic acid, 37) isoquercitrin, 38) kaempferol, 39) lignans, 40) luteolin, 41) luteoxanthin, 42) neochlorogenic acid, 43) neoxanthin, 44) oleanolic acid, 45) p-coumaric acid, 46) piceid, 47) polydatin, 48) proanthocyanidins, 49) procyanidin B2, 50) quercetin, 51) quercitrin, 52) quinones, 53) resveratrol, 54) rutin, 55) stilbenes, 56) syringic acid, and 57) ursolic acid.

CONCLUSION: Chemical research has shown that Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica) contains at least 141 valuable health-promoting substances, including resveratrol, emodin, and polydatin. Tender aerial parts can be used as ingredients for healthy food. I use the young leaves in boiled mixtures of wild edible plants.

Himalayan Balsam (Impatiens glandulifera)

GENERAL HEALTH-PROMOTING PROPERTIES: From published research, I have found 136 (64 + 72) substances in aerial parts of Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera) that promote health according to experimental research in the following ways: 1) antioxidant, 2) anti-inflammatory, 3) antimicrobial, 4) antifungal, 5) antiviral, 6) antitumor, 7) anticancer, 8) cardioprotective, 9) anti-obesity, 10) arthritis-protective, 11) pulmonary and asthma-protective, 12) ovary-protective, 13) UV-protective, 14) antidepressant, 15) neuroprotective. 16) Aerial parts of Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera) contain 46 substances that prevent Alzheimer's disease, according to experimental research.

WARNINGS: Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera) has sharp needle-shaped oxalate crystals in almost all tissues. They are called raphids of calcium oxalate, which can irritate the intestine's mucous membrane. That is why it is not wise to eat leaves or stems. They can be vomiting (emetic). (The seeds may be an exception because many researchers have reported that children eat seeds of Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera).) Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera) is a toxic cadmium (Cd) hyperaccumulator. Researchers have found cadmium (Cd) in all researched parts of Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera). Accordingly, in clean, healthy environments, it is wise to only forage leaves, flowers, and seeds of Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera).

SUGGESTIONS FOR USE: Use boiling water to make water-infusion (water decoction) of Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera) fresh or dried leaves, shoots, and flowers. This herbal water extract is health-promoting. Start with small doses. Taste a flower, whether you can eat it fresh. It is worth trying because flowers contain many health-promoting substances. Seeds, both raw and mature, are tasty and healthy. Seeds have more unsaturated omega-3 fatty acids than unsaturated omega-6 fatty acids. This proportion promotes health.

Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera) is an invasive alien species with an extensive distribution (Figure 3).

Milanovića & al. (2020) regard Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera) mainly as a harmful invasive alien species. But this species also provides ecosystem services, which I'll present evidence of. Milanovića & al. (2020) present a general framework for discussion but do not understand the importance of foraging this species for food.

Himalayan balsam has large inflorescences. It blooms in late summer. Prdun & al. (2022) state that Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera) is a significant nectar source for bees in late summer. It produces plenty of nectar with pollen and sugars. It attracts plenty of bees.

Leaves and flowers of Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera) are best in boiled-water extracts. Almost all parts of this plant have raphids (needle-like sharp calcium oxalate crystals). I have not found any research on raphids in flowers or seeds. Children eat seeds without any harm, as I have done. Raphids do not enter drinks, which are tonic, refreshing, and full of health-promoting substances. Juice (water extract) of flowers of Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera) is cooling and tonic. (Tonic means medicine for invigorating: increasing physical or mental strength.) Drink only in moderate doses.

According to Kayani & al. (2015, 192), Pakistanis make decoction out of flowers and leaves of Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera). According to Kayani & al. (2015, 192), Pakistanis make a powder after drying the Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera) flowers and leaves. They use this powder to make juice with health-promoting properties: 1) it provides a cooling effect, 2) improves sleep, and 3) it heals depression.

According to Balogh (2008, 133):" The nut flavored seeds and cooked young leaves, and shoots said (sic!) to be edible." Balogh (2008, 133 presents no research references. According to Kraehmer & Bauer (2013, 378 and 382), leaves and shoots contain raphids of calcium oxalate (oxalate crystals, which have a sharp needle-like shape), because of which may irritate the mucous membrane of the intestine. According to Hoover & Wijesinha (1945), intestinal calcium oxalate is insoluble. In their ethnobotanical research, Qureshi & al. (2007, 2278) found that infusions of Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera) flowers are cooling and tonic. Ch & al. (2013, 247 – 248) found that locals use flower juice as a cooling agent and tonic in their ethnobotanical research.

Without any sources, Singh & Arora (1978, 82) claim that the seeds of Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera) are" the seeds which taste like nuts are eaten raw." Srivastava (1988, 205) made an ethnobotanical study on which Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera) seeds are eaten raw in India. According to Nasim & Shabbir (2012, 63), Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera) seeds are eaten raw in Pakistan. According to Nasim & Shabbir (2012, 63)," … its flavor is famous in young ones."

According to ethnobotanical research by Thakur & al. (2017, 3), locals in the Himalayan mountains eat Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera) fruits. According to Nasim & Shabbir (2012, 63), Pakistanis boil young shoots and leaves of Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera) into expectorant. Kumar & al. (2009, 1254) conducted ethnobotanical research on medicinal plants in India. People they interviewed allocated Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera) into the same category as common dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) and pomegranate (Punica granatum), which are used as 1) tonic, 2) appetizer, and 3) cooling agents. According to Gairola & al. (2014, 634 and 655), Indian people use Himalayan balsam as a tonic and aphrodisiac. Tonic means medicine for invigorating: increasing physical or mental tone and strength.

According to Orzelska-Górka & al. (2019, 206 -207), extracts made of Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera) have the following health-promoting properties: (1) antioxidant, (2) antimicrobial, (3) cytostatic, (4) anti-anxiety, and 5) antidepressant. According to Szewczyk & al. (2018b, 11), extracts made of aerial parts of Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera) are (6) anti-inflammatory.

Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera) has oxalate crystals in its tissues that have a sharp needle-like shape. They are called raphids of calcium oxalate, which can irritate the intestine's mucous membrane. According to Kraehmer & Bauer (2013, 378 and 382), researchers have found calcium oxalate raphids in almost all Himalayan balsam tissues (Impatiens glandulifera). They present only one photograph of raphids of calcium oxalate. In the photo, there are plenty of sharp raphids between cells. According to Ch & al (2013, 248), leaves of Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera), when eaten fresh (raw), are emetic. In medicine, emetic means that a substance is vomiting. The cause for emitting is probably raphids of calcium oxalate, which are in almost all tissues of Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera).

According to Kumar & al. (2009, 1254), (Nasim & Shabbir 2012, 63), and (Kayani & al. 2015, 192), foragers can cook shoots and leaves of Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera) for 1) tonic, 2) cooling the body, 3) expectorant, 4) sleep-promoting drink, and 5) to heal depressions. The sharp raphides of calcium oxalate probably remain in plant tissues if only the liquid is drunk. According to Guil & al. (1997, 102), most of the insoluble oxalates in other high-oxalate plants like spinach (Spinacia oleracea) and rhubarb (Rheum rhaponticum) do not solve into water. According to Coakley & al. (2019), Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera) is a hyperaccumulator of toxic cadmium (Cd). All researched parts of Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera) accumulate cadmium (Cd). Accordingly, in clean and healthy environments, it is wise to only forage leaves, flowers, and seeds of Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera).

I have selected phenolic acids to represent health-promoting substances in Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera). According to Szewczyk & Olech (2017), Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera) contains significant phenolic acids. According to Åhlberg (2022a), all main edible parts of Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera) contain phenolic acids: leaves, flowers, and seeds.

Vignette 10. A synthesis of how phenolic acids promote health and their functions in plants.

phenolic acids

For humans: According to Caruso al.& (2022), Rashmi & Negi (2020), Kumar & Goel (2019, Călinoiut & Vodnar (2018), and Szwajgier & al. (2018, phenolic acids have the following health-promoting properties: 1) antioxidants, 2) anti-inflammatory, 3) antimicrobial, 4) anticancer, 5) anti-allergic, 6) antidiabetic, 7) immunoregulatory, 8) anti-thrombotic, 9) anti-atherogenic, 10) cardioprotective, 11) neuroprotective, and 12) prevent Alzheimer’s disease. In plants: According to Marchiosi & al. (2020) and Kumar & Goel (2019), phenolic acids are among plants' most widely distributed phenolic compounds. They are ubiquitous in both wild and cultured edible plants. Phenolic acids have critical biological roles. Many participate in the biosynthesis of structural components of the cell wall. Others are crucial for defence responses to pathogens and herbivores. Marchiosi & al. (2020, 893) divides simple phenolic acids into three groups: Group 1: benzoic acid and benzoic acid derivates, e.g., 1.1) benzoic acid, 1.2) gallic acid, 1.3) protocatechuic acid, 1.4) p-hydroxybenzoic acid, 1.5) salicylic acid, Group 2: cinnamic acid and cinnamic acid derivatives, e.g., 2.1) cinnamic acid, 2.2) p-coumaric acid, 2.3) caffeic acid, 2.4) ferulic acid and 2.5) sinapic acid, and Group 3: others, e.g., 3.1) catechol, 3.2) pyrogallol, and 3.3) chlorogenic acid. Caruso, G. & al. 2022. Phenolic acids and prevention of cognitive decline: polyphenols with a neuroprotective role in cognitive disorders and Alzheimer’s disease. Nutrients 14, 819. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14040819 Kumar, N. & Goel, N. 2019. Phenolic acids: Natural, versatile molecules with promising therapeutic applications. Biotechnology Reports, volume 24, article e00370, 1 – 10. Marchiosi, R. & al. 2020. Biosynthesis and metabolic actions of simple phenolic acids in plants. Phytochemistry Reviews 19, 865 –890. Rashmi, H. & Negi, P. 2020. Phenolic acids from vegetables: A review on processing stability and health benefits. Food Research International, volume 136, article 109298, 1 – 14. Szwajgier, D. & al. 2018. Phenolic acids exert anticholinesterase and cognition-improving effects. Current Alzheimer Research 15(6) 531 – 543.

Figure 4. Flowering Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera). Using only water decoctions or infusions of shoots is wise because all tissues have sharp needle-like oxalate crystals. Photo Mauri K. Åhlberg.

Figure 4. Flowering Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera). Using only water decoctions or infusions of shoots is wise because all tissues have sharp needle-like oxalate crystals. Photo Mauri K. Åhlberg.

Figure 5. Seeds of Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera). On the left are green raw seeds, half-mature seeds in the middle, and mature dark seeds on the right. Photo Mauri K. Åhlberg.

Figure 5. Seeds of Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera). On the left are green raw seeds, half-mature seeds in the middle, and mature dark seeds on the right. Photo Mauri K. Åhlberg.

Seeds of Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera) contain over three times more omega-3-unsaturated fatty acids than omega-6-unsaturated fatty. This ratio promotes health. Seeds also contain oleic acid, the primary health-promoting fatty acid in extra-virgin olive oil.

According to Granado-Casa & Didac (2019), oleic acid is the primary monounsaturated fatty acid in olive oil and nuts, two essential foods in the Mediterranean diet. According to Gavahiana & al. (2019, 222), extra virgin olive oil contains oleic acid. It promotes healthy bacterial diversity in the gut. Wild edible plants often contain oleic acid. According to Granado-Casa & Didac (2019) and Sales-Campo & al. (2013), oleic acid has the following health-promoting properties: 1) prevents metabolic syndrome, 2) prevents high blood pressure, 3) prevents overweight (obesity), 4) prevents hyperglycemia, 5) prevents atherogenic lipid profile, 6) prevents insulin resistance, 7) prevents inflammation, 8) prevents prothrombotic alterations, 9) bactericidal, 10) fungicidal, 11) anticancer, and 12) attenuation of the effects of autoimmune diseases.

According to Szewczyk & al. (2016), Szewczyk & Olech (2017), Szewczyk & al. (2018), Szewczyk & al. (2019a), Szewczyk & al. (2019b), Orzelska-Górka & al. (2019), Vieira & al. (2016), and Åhlberg (2020a and 2022): Aerial parts (leaves, shoots, flowers) of Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera) contain 136 (64+72) health-promoting substances: 1) (E)-ligustilide, 2) (Z)-ligustilide, 3) 4-ethylguaiacol, 4) 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, 5) alpha-copaene, 6) alpha-phellandrene, 7) alpha-selinene, 8) alpha-terpineol, 9) alpha-terpinyl acetate, 10) astragalin, 11) beta-elemene, 12) beta-ionone epoxide, 13) beta-phellandrene, 14) borneol, 15) bornyl acetate, 16) butylphthalide, 17) campesterol, 18) carvacrol, 19) carvone, 20) chondrillasterol, 21) coumarins, 22) delta-cadinene, 23) eriodictyol, 24) essential oils, 25) gallic acid, 26) gamma-cadinene, 27) gamma-elemene, 28) gamma-muurolene, 29) gamma-terpinene, 30) gentisic acid, 31) geranyl acetate, 32) glanduliferin A, 33) glanduliferin B, 34) guaiacol, 35) heptacosane, 36) heptanal, 37) hexahydrofarnesyl, 38) hyperoside, 39) isoquercitrin, 40) kaempferol, 41) limonene, 42) linalool, 43) methyl palmitate, 44) monoterpene hydrocarbons, 45) myricetin, 46) myristic acid, 47) naphthoquinones, 48) oxygenated monoterpenes, 49) oxygenated sesquiterpenes, 50) palmitic acid, 51) p-coumaric acid, 52) p-cymene, 53) phellandral, 54) phytol, 55) piperitone, 56) p-isopropylbenzaldehyde, 57) protocatechuic acid, 58) quercetin, 59) saponins, 60) sitostanols, 61) sitosterols, 62) spinasterol, 63) syringic acid, 64) terpinen-4-ol, 65) terpinen-7-al, 66) terpinolene, 67) T-muurolol, 68) trans-carveol, 69) trans-ferulic acid, 70) trans-piperitol, 71) tricosane, and 72) vanillic acid.

The answer to the research sub-question: How many Alzheimer’s disease-preventing, species-specific health-promoting substances do the aerial parts of Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera) contain? The species-specific compounds are highlighted.

These 136 health-promoting substances of Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera) include 46 (18+28) chemicals that prevent Alzheimer's disease according to experimental research: 1) alpha-linolenic acid, 2) ascorbic acid, 3) caffeic acid, 4) carotenoids, 5) choline, 6) dietary fibers, 7) flavonoids, 8) lutein, 9) melatonin, 10) phenolic acids, 11) phenolic compounds, 12) phenylpropanoids, 13) phytic acid, 14) polyphenols, 15) polysaccharides, 16) silicon, 17) terpenoids, 18) tocopherols, 19) (E)-ligustilide, 20) (Z)-ligustilide, 21) 4-ethylguaiacol, 22) alpha-selinene, 23) alpha-terpineol, 24) alpha-terpinyl acetate, 25) astragalin, 26) borneol, 27) butylphthalide, 28) carvacrol, 29) carvone, 30) coumarins, 31) eriodictyol, 32) essential oils, 33) gamma-terpinene, 34) guaiacol, 35) hydroxycinnamic acids, 36) hyperoside, 37) isoquercitrin, 38) kaempferol, 39) limonene, 40) linalool, 41) myricetin, 42) naphthoquinones, 43) p-cymene, 44) protocatechuic acid, 45) quercetin, and 46) saponins.

FLOWERS: Applying Åhlberg (2020a, 2022a, and 2023), Pires & al. (2021), Szewczyk & Olech (2017), and Vieira & al. (2016, 119), flowers of Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera) contain 81 (64 + 17) health-promoting substances. The 18 substances that are specific for the flowers of Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera) are 1) 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, 2) astragalin, 2) coumarins, 3) eriodictyol, 4) essential oils, 5) gallic acid, 6) gentisic acid,7) hyperoside, 8) isoquercitrin, 9) kaempferol, 10) myricetin, 11) naphthoquinones, 12) p-coumaric acid, 13) protocatechuic acid, 14) quercetin, 15) syringic acid, 16) trans-ferulic acid, and 17) vanillic acid.

The 81 health-promoting substances of the flowers of Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera include the next 26 (18 + 8) substances that prevent Alzheimer's disease: 1) alpha-linolenic acid, 2) ascorbic acid, 3) caffeic acid, 4) carotenoids, 5) choline, 6) dietary fibers, 7) flavonoids, 8) lutein, 9) melatonin, 10) phenolic acids, 11) phenolic compounds, 12) phenylpropanoids, 13) phytic acid, 14) polyphenols, 15) polysaccharides, 16) silicon, 17) terpenoids, 18) tocopherols, 19) coumarins, 20) essential oils, 21) gallic acid, 22) kaempferol, 23) myricetin, 24) protocatechuic acid, 25) quercetin, and 26) vanillic acid.

SEEDS: According to Åhlberg (2020a, 2022b, 2023) and Szewczyk & al. (2018), seeds of Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera) contain 79 (64+15) health-promoting substances. The specific health-promoting 15 compounds in seeds are 1) 9,19-cyclolanostan-3-ol, 24-methylene-, acetate, (3beta), 2) arachidonic acid, 3) azelaic acid, 4) beta-amyrin acetate, 5) campesterol, 6) caprylic acid, 7) chondrillasterol, 8) ergosta-7,22-dien-3-o l, 9) gamma-linolenic acid, 10) oleic acid, 11) palmitic acid, 12) sitostanol, 13) spinasterol, 14) stigmasterol, and 15) triterpenes.

The seeds of Himalayan balsam contain 18 (18 + 0) substances that prevent Alzheimer's disease: 1) alpha-linolenic acid, 2) ascorbic acid, 3) caffeic acid, 4) carotenoids, 5) choline, 6) dietary fibers, 7) flavonoids, 8) lutein, 9) melatonin, 10) phenolic acids, 11) phenolic compounds, 12) phenylpropanoids, 13) phytic acid, 14) polyphenols, 15) polysaccharides, 16) silicon, 17) terpenoids, and 18) tocopherols.

Conclusion: I cook leaves of Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera) and drink the infusion. I eat raw flowers of Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera) and seeds in all development stages. Based on research results, I regard this wise practice to promote my health and longevity.

Rugosa Rose (Rosa rugosa)

According to Kelager& al. (2013), Rosa rugosa is (1) native to East Asia, (2) one of the most troublesome invasive plant species in natural or semi-natural habitats of northern Europe, and (3) very difficult to control.

According to Dobreva & Nedeltcheva-Antonova (2023, 1), Rosa rugosa has been cultivated in East Asia for thousands of years.

Rosa rugosa provides many ecosystem services for humans, including 1) petals and 2) rose hips for food. It is an important ornamental and economical plant. Its essential oil is expensive and has high economic value. According to Katekar & al. (2022), “… the production of rose essential oil and rose water is a lucrative source of revenue for rural communities.”

Rosa rugosa may have both flowers (petals) and fruits (hips) simultaneously. According to Xie & al. (2022), Rosa rugosa purple lines flowers from spring to autumn. Medveckienė & al. (2023) call Rosa rugosa purple line a genotype ‘Rubra.’ Usually, foragers and growers gather rose petals and hips for different purposes. Rarely have both petals and rose hips been used in the same dish. Strangely, two recent research articles (Razgonova & al. 2022 and Wangg & al. 2022) combined the chemical constituents of rose petals and rose hips. In these two papers, all found phytochemicals are listed, regardless of research results, whether they promote health. I have searched separately for the kinds of health-promoting substances Rosa rugosa petals and rose hips contain.

According to Cendrowski & al. (2017): “The main polyphenol fraction in Rosa rugosa petals was ellagitannins constituting from 69 to 74% of the total petals’ polyphenols.”

Petals

According to (Cendrowski & al. (2017), Dobreva & Nedeltcheva-Antonova (2023), Dobson & al. (1990), Feng & al. (2014), Katekar & al. (2022), Lu & Wang (2018), Maciąg & Kalemba (2015), Manjiro & al. (2008), Nowak & al. (2014), Olech & al. (2019), Sulborska & al. (2012), and Zhang & al. (2019), the petals of rugosa rose (Rosa rugosa) contain the following 130 health-promoting substances in addition of the 64 health-promoting substances that all green vascular plants contain: 1) (+)-catechin (cianidanol), 2) )aliphatic alcohols, 3) alpha-cadinol, 4) alpha-curcumene, 5) alpha-glucans, 6) alpha-phellandrene, 7) alpha-pinene, 8) alpha-terpineol, 9) anthocyanins, 10) apigenin, 11) apigenin 7-O-glucoside, 12 astragalin, 13) avicularin, 14) beta-caryophyllene, 15) beta-caryophyllene oxide, 16) beta-citronellol, 17) beta-glucans, 18) beta-pinene, 19) borneol, 20) bornyl acetate, 21) cadalene, 22) camphene, 23) caprylic acid, 24) catechin, 25) cis-linalool oxide, 26) cyanidins, 27) docosanal, 28) docosanol, 29) dodecanol, 30) eicosane, 31) ellagic acid, 32) ellagitannins, 33) essential oils, 34) eugenol, 35) euscaphic acid, 36) flavan-3-ols, 37) flavones, 38) flavonoid glycosides, 39) flavonols, 40) gallic acid, 41) gamma-muurolene, 42) gentisic acid, 43) geranial, 44) geranic acid, 45) geraniol, 46) geranyl acetate, 47) geranyl formate, 48) glycosides, 49) hemiterpenes, 50) heneicosane, 51) heptanal, 52) hexacosane, 53) hydrolyzable tannins, 54) hyperoside, 55) isocaryophyllene, 56) isoquercitrin, 57) isorhamnetin 3-O-glucoside, 58) kaempferol, 59) kaempferol 3,4-di-O-glucoside, 60) kaempferol derivatives, 61) kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside, 62) lauric acid, 63) limonene, 64) linalool, 65) linalyl acetate, 66) methyl eugenol, 67) methyl jasmonate, 68) monoterpene acids, 69) monoterpene esters, 70) monoterpene hydrocarbons, 71) monoterpene oxygenated, 72) monoterpenes, 73) myrcene, 74) myricetin 3,5-di-O-glucoside, 75) nonadecene, 76) nerol, 77)neryl acetate, 78) neryl acetone, 79) octyl butyrate, 80) oleic acid, 81) p-coumaric acid, 82) p-cymen-8-ol, 83) p-cymen-9-ol, 84) pelargonidins, 85) pentacosane, 86) pentadecan-2-one, 87) peonidin 3,5-di-O-glucoside, 88) peonidin 3,5-di-O-glucoside, 89) peonidin 3-O-glucoside, 90) peonidin 3-osophoroside, 91) peonidins, 92) phenylacetaldehyde, 93) phenylethyl salicylate, 94) proanthocyanidins, 95) procyanidins, 96) protocatechuic acid, 97) quercetin, 98) quercetin 3,4-di-O-glucoside, 99) quercetin 3,4-O-diglucoside, 100) quercetin 3-O-glucosyl-xyloside, 101) quercetin 3-O-rhamnoside, 102) quercetin derivatives, 103) quercitrin, 104) quinine, 105) rosamultin, 106) rose oxides, 107) rugosin D, 108) rutin, 109) sabinene, 110) salicylic acid, 111) sanguiin, 112) sanguiin H-2, 113) sesquiterpene, 114) sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, 115) sesquiterpene oxygenated, 116) sinapic acid, 117) stearic acid, 118) tannins, 119) tellimagradin II, 120) terpenoid alcohols, 121) terpenoids, 122) terpinen-4-ol, 123) tetracosane. 124) thymol, 125) tiliroside, 126) T-muurolol, 127) tormentic acid, 128) tricosane, 129) triterpenoids, and 130) undecanal.

Hips

According to Singh & Gairola (2023), edible wild rose hips have great potential for food security.

According to Zhou & al. (2023), people are becoming more health-conscious about the nutritional and health benefits of rose hips. "The rosehip is an underutilized and sustainably produced fruit with great potential to generate value-added products."

According to Olech & al. (2017), Rosa rugosa provides one of the most enormous hips for food products. They are tasty.

According to Olech & al. (2019), Rosa rugosa hips are the most abundant source of health-promoting polysaccharides such as alpha-glucan and beta-glucan.

According to Skrypnik & al. (2019): “This study showed the high nutritional value of rose hips, especially of the species Rosa rugosa Thunb.”

Stuper-Szablewska & al. (2023) state that Rosa rugosa hips have antifungal and antiviral properties.

Åhlberg (2020a and 2022a), Al-Yafeai & al. (2018), Cunja & al. (2016), Dashbaldan & al. (2021), Medveckienė & al. (2023), Milala & al. (2021), Nijat & al. (2021), Nowak, R. (2005, Nowak (2006), Olech & al. (2017), Olech & al. (2019), Olech & al. (2023), Stuper-Szablewska & al. (2023), Xie & al. (2022), the hips of rugosa rose (Rosa rugosa) contain the following 100 health-promoting substances in addition of the 64 health-promoting substances that all green vascular plants contain: 1) 2-hexenoic acid methyl ester, 2) 2-octenal, 3) 3-feruloylquinic acid, 4) 24-methylenecycloartanol, 5) afzelin, 6) alpha-amyrenone, 7) alpha-amyrin, 8) alpha-cryptoxanthin, 9) alpha-farnesene, 10) alpha-glucans, 11) alpha-pinene, 12) apigenin, 13) astragalin, 14) avicularin, 15) beta-amyrin, 16) beta-cryptoxanthin, 17) beta-glucans, 18) beta-ionone, 19) beta-myrcene, 20) betulinic acid, 21) butyric acid, 22) campesterol, 23) caprylic acid methyl ester, 24) catechin, 25) cholesta-3,5-dien-7-one, 26) cis-3-hexenal, 27) corosolic acid, 28) cyanidin-3-glucoside, 29) decanal, 30) decanoic acid, 31) docosane, 32) dodecanoic acid, 33) edulan, 34) ellagic acid, 35) ellagic tannins, 36) erythrodiol, 37) essential oils, 38) farnesyl acetone, 39) flavanols, 40) flavanols, 41) fumaric acid, 42) gallic acid, 43) gamma-terpinene, 44) geranial, 45) geraniol, 46) guaiacol, 47) heneicosane, 48) hexadecanoic acid, 49) hexahydrofarnesyl acetone, 50) isofucosterol, 51) juglanin, 52) kaempferol, 53) lauric acid methyl ester, 54) limonene, 55) linalool, 56) linolenic acid methyl ester, 57) lupeol, 58) luteolin, 59) lycopene, 60) maslinic acid, 61) methyl caprate, 62) myristic acid, 63) naringenin, 64) neral, 65) nonanal, 66) obtusifoliol, 67) octanal, 68) oleanolic acid, 69) oleanolic aldehyde, 70) palmitic acid methyl ester, 71) p-cymene, 72) pentacosane, 73) phloridzin, 74) phytoene, 75) pomolic acid, 76) procyanidins, 77) quercetin, 78) quercetin-3-O-sophoroside, 79) quercitrin, 80) quinic acid, 81) rutin, 82) safranol, 83) scutellarin, 84) sitostenone, 85) steroids, 86) stigma sta-3.5-dien-7-one, 87) stigmasterol, 88) stilbenoids, 89) tannins, 90) terpinolene, 91) tetracosane, 92) trans-geranyl-acetone, 93) tricosane, 94) triterpenoid acids, 95) triterpenoids, 96) ursolic acid, 97) ursolic aldehyde, 98) uvaol, 99) vitexin, and 100) Z-nerolidol.

HIPS: I found that the hips of rugosa rose (Rosa rugosa) have at least 164 (64+100) health-promoting substances.

HEALTH-PROMOTING PROPERTIES of petals and hips of rugosa rose (Rose rugosa), according to health-promoting properties of ellagitannins: 1) antioxidant, 2) anti-inflammatory, 3) antimicrobial, 4) antiglycative, 4) hepato-protective, 5) beneficial effects on kidney diseases, 4) anti-virus, 5) cardioprotective, 6) neuroprotective, 7) prebiotic, 8) chronic disease prevention, 7) anticancer, 8) antidiabetic, 9) beneficial effects on chronic tissue inflammation, 10) beneficial effects on metabolic syndrome) 11) beneficial effects on obesity-mediated metabolic complications, 12) beneficial effects on gastrointestinal diseases, 13) beneficial effects on eye diseases, 14) beneficial effects on depression, 15) muscle mass protective effects, and 16) beneficial effects on Alzheimer's disease and other neurodegenerative diseases

WARNINGS: I used to warn about salicylic acid before I learned while writing this paper that all green vascular plants contain salicylic acid. According to experimental research, plant salicylic acid promotes health.

SUGGESTIONS FOR USE: The flowers and fruits (rose hips) of the rugosa rose (Rosa rugosa) are widely used in salads or the traditional Mediterranean-style boiled mixtures of wild edible plants. Foragers can use petals for healthy dish decoration.

Milanovića & al. (2020, 3) present rugosa rose (Rosa rugosa) as a harmful invasive alien species. However, they understand that this species also provides many ecosystem services (seven listed) and disservices (two listed). Foragers have found that rugosa rose (Rosa rugosa) provides food for humans and other ecosystem services, of which I'll present evidence. Milanovića & al. (2020) present a general framework for discussion but do not fully understand the importance of foraging this species for food. According to Zhanga & al. (2019, 938) and Olech & al. (2019,2), in different cultures, petals and rosehips of rugosa rose (Rosa rugosa) have been used for a long time as a health-promoting food. Petals of rugosa roses (Rosa rugosa) are more significant than many other roses, and they smell and taste good. Often, there are plenty of them. Also, the hips of the rugosa rose (Rosa rugosa) are the biggest I have seen in roses.

According to Ng & al (2005), Rosa rugosa-flower extract increases the activities of antioxidant enzymes and their gene expression and reduces lipid peroxidation. According to Aisa & al. (2019), the edible and medicinal properties of rugosa rose (Rosa rugosa) are widely applied in the world: rose oil, rose sauce, rose cake, rose wine, rose tea, rose herbs, and other applications According to Cendrowski & al. (2017), "the petals of Rosa rugosa are a valuable source of bioactive compounds and can be considered a healthy, valuable resource." According to Nowak & al. (2013, 1), their utilization could be much higher despite the wide availability of raw materials from Rosa rugosa. This situation is likely to result from poor knowledge about the nutritional and medicinal properties of the species and a lack of comprehensive information on its chemical composition.

Figure 6. The rugosa rose (Rosa rugosa) is also known as the “beach rose” in English because it thrives on sandy beaches. Its petals and hips promote health and longevity and are an essential ecosystem service. Photo Mauri K. Åhlberg.

Figure 6. The rugosa rose (Rosa rugosa) is also known as the “beach rose” in English because it thrives on sandy beaches. Its petals and hips promote health and longevity and are an essential ecosystem service. Photo Mauri K. Åhlberg.

Figure 7. Rugosa rose (Rosa rugosa, purple line) has flowers and rosehips from early summer to late autumn in a good environment. It provides plenty of beautiful flowers and hips, which contain more health-promoting substances than other wild edible plants. Photo Mauri K. Åhlberg.

Figure 7. Rugosa rose (Rosa rugosa, purple line) has flowers and rosehips from early summer to late autumn in a good environment. It provides plenty of beautiful flowers and hips, which contain more health-promoting substances than other wild edible plants. Photo Mauri K. Åhlberg.

Cendrowski & al. (2017): “Due to the high content of bioactive compounds, especially polyphenolic compounds, including anthocyanins, flavonols, and ellagitannins, Rosa rugosa petals can be a valuable raw material for the production of health preparations.”

Cendrowski & al. (2017): “. Fresh petals of Rosa rugosa were collected from the industrial-scale plantation of the company “Polska Roza” located in Kotlina Kłodzka (Poland) in June 2011, June 2012, and June 2013.”

Both petals and hips of rugosa rose (Rosa rugosa) contain ellagitannins. I have selected ellagitannins as an example of over 164 (hips)-194 (petals) health-promoting substances that this invasive plant (Rosa rugosa) provides for humans as a free ecosystem service. I present them in more detail in the following vignette.

Vignette 11. A synthesis of how ellagitannins promote health.

ellagitannins

According to Chen & al. (2022), García-Villalba & al. (2022), Gopalsamy & al. (2022), Al-Harbi & al. (2021), D'Amico & al. (2021), Hoseinynejad & al. (2021), Miloševic & al. (2021), Yüksel & al. (2021), Dreger & al. (2020), Li & al. (2020), Luca (2019, 17), Yoshida & al. (2018), Muthukumaran & al. (2017, 240 - 241), and Sangiovanni & al. (2013), ellagitannins have the following health-promoting properties: 1) antioxidant, 2) anti-inflammatory, 3) antimicrobial, 4) antiglycative, 4) hepato-protective, 5) beneficial effects on kidney diseases, 4) anti-virus, 5) cardioprotective, 6) neuroprotective, 7) prebiotic, 8) chronic disease prevention, 7) anticancer, 8) antidiabetic, 9) beneficial effects on chronic tissue inflammation, 10) beneficial effects on metabolic syndrome) 11) beneficial effects on obesity-mediated metabolic complications, 12) beneficial effects on gastrointestinal diseases, 13) beneficial effects on eye diseases, 14) beneficial effects on depression, 15) muscle mass protective effects, and 16) beneficial effects on Alzheimer's disease and other neurodegenerative diseases. Schink & al. (2018) describe how ellagitannins prevent inflammations using molecular biology. Al-Harbi, S.& al. 2021.Urolithins: The gut-based polyphenol metabolites of ellagitannins in cancer prevention, a review. Frontiers in Nutrition, Volume 8, article 647582, 1 – 15. Chen P. & al. 2022. Recent advances and perspectives on the health benefits of urolithin b, a bioactive natural product derived from ellagitannins. Frontiers in Pharmacology 13:917266 D’Amico, D. & al. 2021. Impact of the Natural Compound Urolithin A on Health, Disease, and Aging. Trends in Molecular Medicine 27(7), 687 – 699. Dreger, M. & al. 2020. Pharmacological properties of fireweed (Epilobium angustifolium L.) and bioavailability of ellagitannins. A review. Herba Polonica 66(1), 52 – 64. García-Villalba, R. & al. 2022. Ellagitannins, urolithins, and neuroprotection: Human evidence and the possible link to the gut microbiota. Molecular Aspects of Medicine. Available online 5 August 2022, 101109. In Press, Corrected Proof. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mam.2022.101109 Gopalsamy, R. & al. 2022. Health functions and related molecular mechanisms of ellagitannin-derived urolithins, Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2022.2106179 Li, Q. & al. 2020. Anti-renal fibrosis and anti-inflammation effect of urolithin B, ellagitannin-gut microbial-derived metabolites in unilateral ureteral obstruction rats. Journal of Functional Foods, Volume 65, article 103748, 1 – 13. Miloševic M. & al. 2021. Memorable food: Figurehting age-related neurodegeneration by precision nutrition. Frontiers in Nutrition, Volume 8, article 688086, 1 – 13. Sangiovanni, E. & al. 2013. Ellagitannins from Rubus berries for the control of gastric inflammation: in vitro and in vivo studies. PLoS ONE, Volume 8(8), article e71762, 1 – 12. Yüksel, A. & al. 2021. Phytochemical, phenolic profile, antioxidant, anticholinergic, and antibacterial properties of Epilobium angustifolium (Onagraceae). Journal of Food Measurement and Characterization. Published online 12. 7. 2021, 1 – 10. Yoshida, T & al. 2018. The chemical and biological significance of oenothein B and related ellagitannin oligomers with macrocyclic structure. Molecules, Volume 23, article 552, 1–21.

How many Alzheimer’s disease-preventing, species-specific health-promoting substances do the petals and hips of Rosa rugosa have? The species-specific compounds are highlighted:

PETALS: Petals of rugosa rose (Rosa rugosa) contain 194 health-promoting substances. They include the next 35 (18 + 17) compounds that prevent Alzheimer's disease according to experimental research: 1) alpha-linolenic acid, 2) ascorbic acid, 3) caffeic acid, 4) carotenoids, 5) choline, 6) dietary fibers, 7) flavonoids, 8) lutein, 9) melatonin, 10) phenolic acids, 11) phenolic compounds, 12) phenylpropanoids, 13) phytic acid, 14) polyphenols, 15) polysaccharides, 16) silicon, 17) terpenoids, 18) tocopherol, 19) anthocyanins, 20) apigenin, 21) catechin, 22) ellagic acid, 23) ellagitannins, 24) essential oils, 25) flavonols, 26) gallotannins, 27) isorhamnetin, 28) kaempferol, 29) limonene, 30) linalool, 31) myricetin, 32) procyanidins, 33) quercetin, 34) rutin, and 35) sinapic acid.

HIPS: Fruits (rosehips) of rugosa rose (Rosa rugosa) contain over 164 health-promoting compounds and ions; they include the following 39 (18+ 21) compounds that prevent Alzheimer's disease according to experimental research: 1) alpha-linolenic acid, 2) ascorbic acid, 3) caffeic acid, 4) carotenoids, 5) choline, 6) dietary fibers, 7) flavonoids, 8) lutein, 9) melatonin, 10) phenolic acids, 11) phenolic compounds, 12) phenylpropanoids, 13) phytic acid, 14) polyphenols, 15) polysaccharides, 16) silicon, 17) terpenoids, 18) tocopherol, 19) anthocyanins, 20) apigenin, 21) beta-caryophyllene, 22) catechin, 23) chlorogenic acid, 24) ellagitannins, 25) essential oils, 26) hespiridin, 27) hydroxycinnamic acids, 28) isorhamnetin, 29) kaempferol, 30) kaempferol-3-o-glucoside, 31) linalool, 32) luteolin, 33) lycopene, 34) myricetin (raw fruits), 35) naringin, 36) nobiletin, 37) quercetin, 38) rutin, and 39) taxifolin.

Conclusion: The total number of health-promoting substances in rose petals is at least 194 (64 + 130). The total number of health-promoting substances in rose hips is at least 164 (64+100). I eat hips directly from rose bushes. I eat petals directly from flowers. I get plenty of health-promoting substances, prevent Alzheimer’s disease, and get beneficial microbes (probiotics) everywhere on surfaces of edible plants. I use petals and rose hips to decorate my food.

3.2.2. Invasive Alien Species in North America

Garlic Mustard (Alliaria petiolata)

DISTRIBUTION: According to GBIF (2023), garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata) is widely distributed globally.

HEALTH-PROMOTING PREVENTIVE PROPERTIES: Garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata) has 100 health-promoting substances. One of them is apigenin, which promotes health in the following ways: 1) antioxidant, 2) anti-inflammatory, 3) antidiabetic, 4) beneficial role in amnesia and Alzheimer’s disease, neuroprotective agent against Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases, 5) beneficial effects in depression and insomnia, 6) anticancer, protects from cancer in many ways, 7) mitigates rheumatoid arthritis, 8) alleviates autoimmune disorders, and 9) in elderly males increases androgen production for health; improves testosterone production, contributing to normal spermatogenesis and preventing age-related degenerative diseases associated with testosterone deficiency. Garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata) has 24 substances that prevent Alzheimer’s disease.

WARNINGS: Earlier, researchers warned about erucic acid. Nowadays, experimental research shows that it promotes health.

SUGGESTIONS FOR USE: The leaves of garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata) smell like garlic. As with all wild edible weeds, it is wise to use only reasonable amounts in boiled mixtures of wild edible plants, preferably in the Mediterranean way.

According to Garcia-Herrera & Sanches-Mata (2016, 148), garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata) belongs to traditional Mediterranean wild edible plants. When the leaves are crushed, new leaves of garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata) have a garlic odor. According to Fleischhauer & al. (2016, 126–127), Central Europeans use garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata) in salads, soups, and other dishes. According to Lucchetti & al. (2019, 4), Italians use flowers and leaves of garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata) in salads and to decorate dishes. According to Motti & al. (2022), Italians use garlic mustard as a vegetable.

According to Egebjerg & al. (2018, 134), leaves of garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata) contain erucic acid, 31 percent of all lipids, and 0,5 % dry weight. According to Mira & al. (2019, 5), seeds of garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata) contain erucic acid 28%, over 40 % of the total lipid content. According to EU CONTAM (2017, 1), the safe use of erucic acid is 7 mg per kg body weight. According to experimental research by Takahashi & al. (2021), erucic acid ameliorates obesity-induced metabolic disorders.

According to Altinoz & Ozpinar (2019), Dawkins & al. (2023), Galanty & al. (2023), Goya & al. (2023), Kim & al. (2016), Repsold & al. (2018), and Takahashi & al. (2021), (1) erucic acid is a health-promoting compound, and (2) erucic acid prevents Alzheimer’ disease.

According to Sajna (2017), (1) in Europe, garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata) is a “native humble understorey species.” Its habitats are forest understorey, forest edge, and ruderal site. (2) In North America, it is an invasive species.

In Europe, garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata) has a patchy distribution. People spread it in Europe because it is an excellent wild edible plant. In North America, people regard it as a harmful invasive plant. Arrington (2020) suggests people could forage it and cook food in big cities like New York. Arrington (2020) understands that edible invasive plants provide ecosystem services.

According to Cavers & al. (1979, 221), garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata) came to Canada probably with the first immigrants, who valued it as a culinary and medicinal plant. According to Rahman & al. (2018), Australians use garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata) in salads.

According to Fleischhauer & al. (2016, 126 - 127), Central Europeans use garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata), like other wild vegetables, in various dishes, including salads and soups. According to Ivanova & al. (2023), Bulgarians eat garlic mustard in salads and dishes of boiled wild edible plants. According to Lucchetti & al. (2019, 4), Italians use leaves and flowers of garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata) to flavor salads and other dishes. In various dishes, Europeans use garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata) as an edible green and aromatic spice.

According to Rahman & al. (2018), garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata) is an invasive species in Australia. Australians use leaves of garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata) in salads.

According to Grieve (1959, 221), “Alliaria petiolata was probably introduced from Europe by the early colonists who valued it as a medicinal and salad plant.”

According to Rodgers & al. (2022, 521), “As a western Eurasian plant, garlic mustard was likely introduced to North America by early colonists as a medicinal plant and garlic substitute (Grieve 1959). … Garlic mustard was first formally identified in North America in the 1860s in Long Island, New York, and has since invaded a range of forest understorey and edge communities across the continent …”

Figure 8. Distribution of garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolate) in North America. Source: Rodgers & al. (2022, 522). This open-access article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted reuse, distribution, and reproduction in any medium provided the original work is properly cited. https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/biac012.

Figure 8. Distribution of garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolate) in North America. Source: Rodgers & al. (2022, 522). This open-access article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted reuse, distribution, and reproduction in any medium provided the original work is properly cited. https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/biac012.

According to Harris & al. (2022), garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata) produces the secondary compound sinigrin, a type of glucosinolate that defends against herbivores and pathogens and is toxic to North American plants and butterflies.

According to Cavers & al (1979, 218): “Beneficial – Potentially, the greatest use of Alliaria petiolata may be as a green vegetable. The leaves and top just before flowering have a higher value of vitamin C, on a weight basis than oranges (Zennie and Ogzewalla 1977). Zennie and Ogzewalla also reported that the leaves at all times of the year have a higher value of vitamin A than spinach (which has the highest level of all the widely marketed garden vegetables). Fernald [Fernando] & al. (1958) suggested that A. petiolata may be used as a salad green or in sandwiches and may be substituted for garlic in cooking. Grieve (1959) reported that country people used the plant in sauces and salads. They called it "sauce alone.”

According to Haribal & Renwick (2001), leaves of garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata) contain apigenin. According to Dourado & al. (2020), Martin & Touaibia (2020), Kim & al. (2019), Salehi & al. (2019), Nabavi & al. (2018), Madunić & al. (2018) and Ali & al. (2017a), apigenin has the following astounding health-promoting properties: 1) antioxidant, 2) anti-inflammatory, 3) antidiabetic, 4) beneficial role in amnesia and Alzheimer’s disease, neuroprotective agent against Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases, 5) beneficial effects in depression and insomnia, 6) anticancer, protects from cancer in many ways, 7) mitigates rheumatoid arthritis, 8) alleviates autoimmune disorders, and 9) in elderly males increases androgen production for health; improves testosterone production, contributing to normal spermatogenesis and preventing age-related degenerative diseases associated with testosterone deficiency. Apigenin is safe, even at high doses, and researchers have found no toxicity. Salehi & al. (2019) present molecular biological mechanisms for these properties. According to DeRango-Adem & Blay (2021), in natural sources, apigenin is commonly found as an apigenin-glucoside, such as 7-O-glucoside, 6-C-glucoside, or 8-C-glucoside. After ingesting the plant material, these apigenin-glucosides are enzymatically metabolized in vivo into free apigenin (i.e., the aglycone form) and subsequently absorbed.

According to Blazevic & Mastelic (2008), garlic mustard contains more health-promoting isothiocyanates than other volatile substances. Applying Wu (2009): isothiocyanates are small molecules formed from glucosinolate precursors of cruciferous vegetables, such as garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata).

Vignette 12. A synthesis of how isothiocyanates promote health.

isothiocyanates

According to Ahmad & al. (2022), Kamal & al. (2022), Li & al. (2022), Kim (2021), Favela-González & al. (2020), Amron & Konsue (2018, 69), Giacoppo & al. (2015), and Agneta & al. (2013, 1935 - 1939), isothiocyanates have the following health-promoting properties: 1) antioxidants, 2) antimicrobial, 3) antifungal, 4) antiviral, 5) anticancer, anticarcinogenic, 6) anti-obesity, and 7) protect against neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease. According to Martelli & al. (2020, 110), isothiocyanates emerge from the enzymatic hydrolysis of glucosinolates. This enzymatic reaction happens when these plants are crunched or cut. It means that their cell walls break. The enzyme myrosinase and glucosinolates are usually in separated plant cells. After the cell walls break, myrosinase and glucosinolates come into contact. Their reaction leads to the rapid formation of isothiocyanates. Agneta, R. & al. 2013. Horseradish (Armoracia rusticana), a neglected medical and condiment species with a relevant glucosinolate profile: a review. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 60(7), 1923 – 1943. Ahmad, H. & al. 2022. Derived Isothiocyanates on cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases. Molecules 27, 624. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27030624 Amron, N. & Konsue, N. 2018. Antioxidant capacity and nitrosation inhibition of cruciferous vegetable extracts. International Food Research Journal 25(1), 65 – 73. Favela-González, K. & al. 2020. The value of bioactive compounds of cruciferous vegetables (Brassica) as antimicrobials and antioxidants: A review. Journal of Food Biochemistry 44, e13414. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfbc.13414 Giacoppo, S. & al. 2015. An overview of neuroprotective effects of isothiocyanates for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. Fitoterapia 106, 12-21. Kamal, R. & al. 2022. Beneficial health effects of glucosinolates-derived isothiocyanates on cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases. Molecules 27(3), 624; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27030624 Kim, J. 2021. Pre-Clinical Neuroprotective Evidences and Plausible Mechanisms of Sulforaphane in Alzheimer’s Disease. International Journal of Molecular Sciences 22, 2929. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22062929 Li, X.& al. 2022. The structure basis of phytochemicals as metabolic signals for combating obesity. Frontiers in Nutrition 9, 913883. Martelli, A. & al. 2020. Organic isothiocyanates as hydrogen sulfide donors. Antioxidants&Redox Signaling 32(2), 110 – 144.

According to Egebjerg & al. (2018, 134), (1) leaves of garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata) contain erucic acid, 31 % of the total fats, and 0.5 % of dry weight. According to EU CONTAM (2017, 1), a tolerable daily intake of erucic acid is below 7 mg/kg body weight/day. When foragers eat garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata) as a flavoring substance, spice, or ingredient in mixed vegetables, erucic acid intake is clearly below this limit.

According to Egebjerg & al. (2018, 134), leaves of garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata) contain sinigrin, a cyanogenic compound. The same is true with many other wild edible plants. The amounts that healthy adults get are so small that there are no problems. A couple of fresh leaves can be eaten raw without any health risks. According to Åhlberg (2019, 23, and 34), wild edible plants are used mainly in boiled mixtures of wild edible plants in Mediterranean countries. According to Encyclopaedia Britannica (2018), the boiling point of hydrogen cyanide is 26 °C. In cooking, hydrogen cyanide evaporates out of food into the air.

According to Guil-Guerrero et al. (2007, 288 and 292), garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata) contains oxalic acid, but it also includes plenty of calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg). Calcium and magnesium oxalates are insoluble. They do not pass through the body outside the intestine; they pass through the body inside the intestine, so they cannot harm health.

According to Åhlberg (2020a, 2022a), Egebjerg & al. (2018, 134), Cámara & al. (2016, 190), Cipollini & Cipollini (2016), de Cortes Sánchez-Mata & al. (2016, 122), Manchali & al. (2012, 97), Björkman & al. (2011, 540), Dinică. & al. (2010), Lupoae & al. (2010), Blaevi & Masteli (2008), Blazevic & Mastelic (2008), Haribal & Renwick (2001), and Guil-Guerrero & al. (1999) aerial parts of garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata) contain 36 species-specific health-promoting substances of garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolate) are: 1) 2-phenylethyl alcohol, 2) 2-vinyl-4H-1,3-dithiin, 3) allyl isothiocyanate, 4) allyl thiocyanate, 5) alpha-ionone, 6) apigenin, 7) benzyl isothiocyanate, 8) benzyl thiocyanate, 9) capric acid, 10) caprylic acid, 11) diallyl disulphide, 12) diallyl sulphide, 13) erucic acid, 14) flavone 6-C-glycosides, 15) glucosinolate, 16) isoorientin, 17) isothiocyanates, 18) isovitexin-6-O″β-D-glucoside, 19) lauric acid, 20) methyl palmitate, 21) minerals, 22) myristic acid, 23) nonanal, 24) omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, 25) omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids, 26) oxazolidinethiones, 27) palmitic acid, 28) pentadecanoic acid, 29) phytol, 30) polyunsaturated fatty acids, 31) quercetin, 32) sinigrin, 33) swertiajaponin, 34) swertisin, 35) undecanoic acid, and 36) vitamin A.

The answer to the research sub-question is: How many Alzheimer’s disease-preventing, species-specific health-promoting substances do aerial parts of garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata) have? The species-specific compounds are highlighted:

The 100 (64+36) health-promoting substances of garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata) include the following 24 (18 + 6) substances that prevent Alzheimer’s disease: 1) alpha-linolenic acid, 2) ascorbic acid, 3) caffeic acid, 4) carotenoids, 5) choline, 6) dietary fibers, 7) flavonoids, 8) lutein, 9) melatonin, 10) phenolic acids, 11) phenolic compounds, 12) phenylpropanoids, 13) phytic acid, 14) polyphenols, 15) polysaccharides, 16) silicon, 17) terpenoids, 18) tocopherols, 19) apigenin, 20) erucic acid, 21) essential oils, 22) isothiocyanates, 23) kaempferol, and 24) quercetin.

*** Insert Figureure 9. here ***

Conclusion: Garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata), consumed in the Mediterranean way of boiled mixtures of wild edible plants, makes food tasty and promotes health, well-being, and longevity.

Purple Loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria)

DISTRIBUTION: According to GBIF (2023), purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) is widely distributed globally.

HEALTH-PROMOTING PROPERTIES: I found that the aerial parts of purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) have at least 161 (64+97) health-promoting substances that promote health, according to experimental studies, in the following ways:

Aerial parts of purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) have the following health-promoting properties: 1) antioxidant, 2) anti-inflammatory, 3) antimicrobial, 4) anticancer, 5) painkiller (analgesic), 6) antitussive and bronchodilatory, 7), antidiarrheal, 8) painkiller (antinociceptive), 9) anticoagulant and 10) externally used extracts of purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) to promote skin health.

WARNINGS: None.

SUGGESTIONS FOR USE: Using the leaves and flowers of purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) in Mediterranean-style boiled mixtures of wild edible plants is wise. Foragers use fresh flowers to decorate dishes. I use young shoots, leaves, and flowers of purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) in Mediterranean-style boiled mixtures of wild edible plants and fresh in salads. Foragers may use flowers to decorate dishes and drinks.

According to Fleischhauer & al. (2016, 195), Central Europeans eat flowers, young, soft shoots, and leaves of purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria). Red flowers of purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria have a pleasant aroma. Foragers use fresh flowers to decorate dishes. Central Europeans use young, soft shoots and leaves of purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) in salads and young, tender shoots and leaves in boiled mixtures of wild edible plants. According to Couplan (2017, 187), humans have consumed purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) in salads from ancient Greek and Roman times. Couplan (2017, 187) has traveled broadly, and according to him, Asians use purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) as a vegetable in soups. According to Korean researchers Kim. & al. (2022), “The aerial part of L. salicaria L. would be the most appropriate for food development.”

According to WFO (2023), purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) belongs to the same family, Lythraceae, as a grenade (Punica granatum). Both species have many health-promoting substances.

According to Šutovská & al. (2012), flowering parts of purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) contain polysaccharide-polyphenolic conjugates. According to Šutovská & al. (2012), these polysaccharide-polyphenolic conjugates have antitussive activity and bronchodilatory effect.

According to toxicological tests by Iancu & al. (2021), aerial parts of purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) are not toxic. They contain many health-promoting substances, such as tannins and polyphenols, including anthocyanins. Spectrophotometric determinations of total polyphenols, tannins, and anthocyanins content revealed quantitative values of 16.39% in polyphenols, 10.53% in tannins, and 0.36% in anthocyanins.

Figure 10. Flowering purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria). The aerial parts are edible. The plant contains 161 health-promoting substances, including 41 chemicals that prevent Alzheimer’s disease. Photo Mauri K. Åhlberg.

Figure 10. Flowering purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria). The aerial parts are edible. The plant contains 161 health-promoting substances, including 41 chemicals that prevent Alzheimer’s disease. Photo Mauri K. Åhlberg.

According to The Local Food-Nutraceuticals Consortium (2005, 358-359), Spaniards eat the aerial parts of purple loosestrife (Lytrum salicaria). It contains more polyphenols than 127 studied Mediterranean wild edible plants and fungi.

According to Pirvu & al. (2014), “Lytrum salicaria L. (Fam. Lythraceae), or purple loosestrife, is described with high amounts of polyphenols compounds (up to 18%).” According to Bencsik. & al. (2011), in purple loosestrife (Lytrum salicaria): (1) the highest flavonoid content was measured in the leaves, and (2) total polyphenol contents were higher in the flowering branch tips than in the other organs.

According to the research evidence in this paper, purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) contains 161 health-promoting substances. As an example of these, I present an overview of polyphenols.

Vignette 13. A synthesis of how polyphenols promote health.

polyphenols

According to Gasmi & al. (2022), Mitra&al. (2022), Rajha & al. (2022), Cassidy & al. (2020), Redd & al. (2020), Reed & de Frietas (2020), Srećković & al. (2020), Durazzo, & al. (2019) Gorzynik-Debicka & al. (2018) Qu&al. (2018) and Ignat & al. (2010) polyphenols have the following health-promoting properties: 1) antioxidant, 2) anti-inflammatory, 3) neuroprotective, 4) prevent Alzheimer’s disease, 5) anticancer, 6) protect the cardiovascular system, prevention of cardiovascular diseases, 7) reduce the risk of diabetes, 8) lower hypertension, 9) prevent metabolic abnormalities that may include hypertension, central obesity, insulin resistance, hypertension, and imbalance of lipids in the blood, 10) reduce weight in overweight and obese individuals, 11) antitumor, via anti-initiating, anti-promoting, anti-progression, and anti-angiogenesis actions, as well as by 12) modulating the immune system, participate in the immunological defense, 13) protect against oxidative damage on DNA, 14) antiallergic, 15) antimicrobial, and 16) antiviral. The biological activity of polyphenols is strongly related to their antioxidant properties. They tend to reduce the pool of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and neutralize these potentially carcinogenic metabolites. Leri (2020) describes the biomolecular mechanisms of how polyphenols promote health. Mitra & al. (2022) present experimental evidence on how polyphenols synergistically promote health. According to Coman & Vodnar (2020, 483), over 8000 plant polyphenols are known in plants. According to Šamec & al. (2021), Singhet & al. (2021), and Marranzano & al. (2018), all higher land plants have polyphenols 1) against abiotic stressors, extreme temperatures, drought, flood, light, UV radiation, salt, and heavy metals. Some polyphenols protect plants against biotic stressors, e.g., 2) against herbivores (plant-eating insects and other animals. 3) against micro-organisms. Polyphenolic compounds against abiotic and biotic stressors include phenolic acids, flavonoids, stilbenoids, and lignans. Some polyphenols participate in 4) plant growth and 5) plant development. According to Åhlberg (2021), all wild edible plants have polyphenols. Cassidy, L. & al. 2020. Oxidative stress in Alzheimer’s disease: a review on emergent natural polyphenolic therapeutics. Complementary Therapies in Medicine, volume 49, article 102294, 1 – 11. Gasmi, A. & al. 2022. Polyphenols in metabolic diseases. Molecules 27(19), 6280; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27196280 Leri, M. 2020. Beneficial effects of plant polyphenols: molecular mechanisms. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, volume 21, article 1250, 1 – 40. Marranzano, M.& al. 2018. Polyphenols: plant sources and food industry applications. Current Pharmaceutical Design 24, 4125 – 4130. Mitra, S. & al. 2022. Polyphenols: A first evidence in the synergism and bioactivities. Food Reviews International. Published online: 24 Jan 2022. DOI: 10.1080/87559129.2022.2026376 Redd, P. & al. 2020. Polyphenols are present in Alzheimer’s disease and the gut–brain axis. Microorganisms 8, 19. Reed, J. & de Freitas, V. 2020. Polyphenol chemistry: implications for nutrition, health, and the environment. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 68(10), 2833–2835. Rajha, H. & al. 2022. Recent advances in research on polyphenols: effects on microbiota, metabolism, and health. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research 66, 210067. Šamec, D. & al. 2021. The role of polyphenols in abiotic stress response: The influence of molecular structure. Plants, volume 10, article 118, 1 - 24. Singh, S. & al. 2021. The multifunctional roles of polyphenols in plant-herbivore interactions. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, volume 22, article 1442, 1 – 20. Srećković, N. & al. 2020. Lythrum salicaria L. (Lythraceae) as a promising source of phenolic compounds in the modulation of oxidative stress: Comparison between aerial parts and root extracts. Industrial Crops and Products 155, 112781.

In this paper, I have presented evidence that all vascular green plants contain 64 health-promoting substances, and purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) has 97.

According to Al-Snafi (2019), Becker & al. (2015), Iancu & al. (2021), Jiang & al. (2015), Manayi & al. (2013), Manayi & al. (2014), Pirvu & al. (2014), Piwowarski & al. (2015), Rauha & al. (2001), Srećković & al. (2020), Šutovská & al. (2012), Tong & al. (2019) and Tunalier & al. (2007), purple loosestrife (Lyhtrum salicaria) contains the following 97 health-promoting substances: 1) 1,6-di-O-galloylglucose, 2) 1H-pyrrole-2,5-dione, 3) 1-octen-3-ol, 4) 3,3',4'-tri-O-methylellagic acid, 5) 3,3',4'-tri-O-methylellagic acid-4-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, 6) alkaloids, 7) alpha-terpineol, 8) anthocyanins, 9) apigenin, 10) arabinogalactan, 11) apiin, 12) arabinose, 13) aurantiamide, 14) benzoic acid, 15) beta-ionone, 16) betulinic acid, 17) betulinic acid methyl ester, 18) buntansin, 19) castalagin, 20) catechin, 21) cinnamic acid, 22) chlorogenic acid, 23) corosolic acid, 24) coumarins, 25) cyanidin-3-galactoside, 26) cyanidin-3-O-glucoside, 27) daucosterol, 28) decanoic acid, 29) eicosane, 30) ellagic acid, 31) ellagitannins, 32) erythrodiol, 33) esculetin, 34) essential oils, 35) eugenol, 36) ferulic acid, 37) flavan-3-ols, 38) flavone-C-glycosides, 39) galactose, 40) galacturonan, 41) gallic acid, 42) gallotannins, 43) galloyl-bis-HHDP-glucose, 44) galloyl-HHDP-glucose, 45) heneicosane, 46) heptanoic acid, 47) hyperoside, 48) isochlorogenic acid, 49) isoorientin, 50) isovitexin, 51) lactones, 52) limonene, 53) linalool 54) loliolide, 55) luteolin, 56) lythrine, 57) malvidin, 58) methyl gallate, 59) monoterpenes, 60) muramine, 61) myristic acid, 62) n-hexadecanoic acid, 63) nonadecane, 64) nonanoic acid, 65) o-cresol, 66) octadecane, 67) octanoic acid, 68) oleanolic acid, 69) orientin, 70) p-coumaric acid 71) p-cresol, 72) pentadecane, 73) pedunculagin, 74) pentacosane, 75) peucedanin, 76) phytol, 77) polysaccharide-polyphenolic conjugate, 78) quercitrin, 79) rhamnogalacturonan, 80) rosmarinic acid, 81) rutin, 82) salicairine, 83) salicarinin A, 84) sesquiterpenes, 85) rosmarinic acid, 86) steroids (plant), 87) syringic acid, 88) tannins, 89) tricosane, 90) triterpenes, 91) triterpenoids, 92) umbeliferone-6-carboxylic acid, 93) uronic acids, 94) ursolic acid, 95) vanillic acid, 96) vescalagin, and 97) vitexin.

The answer to the research sub-question is: How many Alzheimer’s disease-preventing, species-specific health-promoting substances do aerial parts of purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) have? The species-specific compounds are highlighted:

The 161 health-promoting substances of purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) include the next 41 (18 + 23) compounds that prevent Alzheimer’s disease: 1) alpha-linolenic acid, 2) ascorbic acid, 3) caffeic acid, 4) carotenoids, 5) choline, 6) dietary fibers, 7) flavonoids, 8) lutein, 9) melatonin, 10) phenolic acids, 11) phenolic compounds, 12) phenylpropanoids, 13) phytic acid, 14) polyphenols, 15) polysaccharides, 16) silicon, 17) terpenoids, 18) tocopherols, 19) alpha-terpineol, 20) anthocyanins, 21) apigenin, 22) aurantiamide, 23) catechin, 24) chlorogenic acid, 25) coumarins, 26) ellagic acid, 27) ellagitannins, 28) essential oils, 29) gallotannins, 30) hyperoside, 31) isovitexin, 32) kaempferol, 33) linalool, 34) luteolin, 35) myricetin, 36) myristic acid, 37) oleanolic acid, 38) p-coumaric acid, 39) rutin, 40) vanillic acid, and 41) vitexin.

Conclusion: The aerial parts of purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) contain 161 (64+97) health-promoting substances. I use them in salads and boiled WEP mixtures.

4. Discussion

5. Conclusions

References

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