3.2. Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
The mean dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration was recorded to be greater in the PRM season (6.45 ppm) than in POM (5.26 ppm) (
Figure 2). Upon comparing both PRM and POM, it was noticed that distributaries (S1- S5) of the Meenachil river, had relatively lower DO content, indicative of organic pollution in these locations [
27]. The minimum DO concentration was recorded at S1 during both seasons (1.6 and 3.3 ppm in PRM and POM, respectively). S1 is a site in the river-lake interface point, where the excessive salinity load as a consequence of sea water mixing [
28], along with domestic waste effluents, might have led to the reduction in DO content. Interestingly, very low DO levels were recorded at S11 (a site at the interface point of River Pamba and Lake Vembanad) during the POM season, which can be attributed to high organic waste disposal during the pilgrimage season (December to January) at Sabarimala. Previous reports have also correlated the high degree of contamination in the River Pampa with pilgrimage season [
29]. In the case of DO levels, ANOVA analysis revealed no significant (p<0.05) seasonal variation among the sampling locations.
Figure 2.
Spatial and temporal variations in physico-chemical parameters in the study area.
Figure 2.
Spatial and temporal variations in physico-chemical parameters in the study area.
In general, higher pH, water temperature, conductivity, TDS, salinity, DO, and hardness levels were recorded in the PRM season. During PRM, the site S7 at the mouth of River Meenachil had the highest conductivity, TDS, salinity, and hardness values in the PRM season; this is where the primary channels of the River Meenachil drain into the lake. While, Puthankayal (S12), another interface of River Pamba with Lake, exhibited the highest conductivity, TDS, salinity, and hardness levels in the POM season. Thus, these results clearly highlight the role of the river mouth points in controlling the water chemistry of Lake. Strong positive correlations were observed between conductivity, total dissolved solids, salinity, total hardness, chloride, sulphate, sodium, magnesium, potassium, and calcium values. Additionally, a strong positive correlation was observed between pH and DO. Temperature displayed a moderate positive correlation among chloride, sulphate, sodium, potassium, magnesium, and DO (
Table 2).
3.3. Ionic Levels
In the pre-monsoon (PRM) season, notably high concentrations of sulphate and chloride were found in water samples collected from Vembanad Lake and its adjoining rivers (
Figure 3). Specifically, sampling points, S7 (located at the mouth of River Meenachil) and S8 (Manimala) exhibited the highest levels of both ions during PRM. Conversely during the post-monsoon (POM) season, S12 (Puthankayal), S15 (chloride), and S6 (sulphate) recorded the highest values. The elevated chloride levels in the lower reaches of River Meenachil during PRM could be attributed to saline water intrusion, with [
30] chloride contamination serving as an indicator of chloride-rich sewage effluent discharge. The decrease in ion concentration during POM could be due to dilution during the monsoon season. In contrast to other parameters, elevated nitrate concentration in surface water was observed during POM, followed by the PRM season. Despite being low in both seasons, nitrate concentrations ranged between 0.24 – 2.11 ppm in PRM season and 0.38 – 4.2 ppm in POM. (
Table 1) The presence of nitrate, although typically not detrimental to health, can lead to eutrophication and pose harm to aquatic systems [
31]. The chloride, nitrate, and sulphate levels exhibited significant variation between PRM and POM seasons. Additionally, a strong positive association between chloride and sulphate suggested a common source of origin (
Table 2). However, there was no association between sulphate and chloride with nitrate levels, indicating a potentially different source for nitrate contribution.
In terms of cation analysis, concentrations of Na, Mg, K, and Ca peaked during PRM compared to POM (
Figure 3). Although no significant difference was observed between ammonium and calcium levels, the maximum concentration of Na, Mg, Ca, and K during PRM were recorded at S1. These ions, particularly Na, showed higher concentrations near the lake-river interface, primarily due to saline water intrusion. Moreover, strong positive associations were observed between Na and various parameters, indicating a common source (
Table 2). Notably, a significant seasonal variation (p<0.05) in Na concentrations was noted.
Figure 3.
Spatial and temporal variations in the ionic concentration of the study area.
Figure 3.
Spatial and temporal variations in the ionic concentration of the study area.
Before reaching the Vembanad Lake, the neighbouring rivers traverse around the Kuttanadu Padashekaram, where paddy cultivation occurs below sea level, a characteristic feature of this study area. Potassium (K), a key component of many artificial fertilizers, exhibited concentrations varying from 9.49 to 76.2 ppm during PRM and 0.81 to 27.71 ppm during POM. The annual fertilizer input of K into River Pamba is approximately 6207 tonnes/year [
29]. K displayed significant positive correlations with various parameters, indicating a common source. Additionally, significant seasonal differences were observed for K (p<0.05).
Significant variations were also observed for Mg and Ca levels between the two seasons, with higher concentrations recorded during PRM. Mg ions exhibited a seasonal average value greater than Ca ions during PRM, while the opposite trend was observed during the POM. The presence of a lime industry near certain sampling station (S1) may contribute to the significant loading of Ca ions in both seasons. Strong positive correlations were observed for Mg and Ca with various parameters, indicating potential common sources.
Ammonium ions, recognized as good indicators of eutrophication, exhibited concentration variation from 3.52 to 12.55 ppm during PRM and 0.04 to 12.52 ppm during POM (
Figure 3). The maximum NH
4 concentration in PRM was observed at S10, while S14 recorded the highest NH
4 concentration in POM. River Pamba contributes dissolved inorganic nitrogen to Lake Vembanad, with chemical fertilizers and animal waste effluents potentially contributing to nitric acid pollution of water [
29,
32]. Negative correlations were observed between NH
4 and conductivity, TDS, and salinity, with no significant variation in NH
4 concentration between seasons (
Table 2).
Table 1.
Variations in hydrographical parameters in the study area. Results of ANOVA also presented.
Table 1.
Variations in hydrographical parameters in the study area. Results of ANOVA also presented.
Parameter |
Seasonal Variations |
ANOVA- p value (Seasonal)
|
Premonsoon |
Postmonsoon |
Range |
Mean |
Range |
Mean |
Temperature (⁰C) |
28.5-32.2 |
31.01 |
26.8-30.8 |
29.2 |
.000 |
pH |
5.1-7.8 |
6.43 |
5.3-7.2 |
6.47 |
.862 |
Conductivity (μS/cm) |
64-4618 |
2128.75 |
46.1-2760 |
669.45 |
.014 |
TDS (ppm) |
41-3003 |
1382.75 |
32.2-1970 |
475.71 |
.017 |
Salinity (ppm) |
20-2460 |
1092.5 |
28.2-1420 |
332.23 |
.051 |
DO (ppm) |
1.6-8.7 |
6.45 |
2.3-7.8 |
5.26 |
.094 |
Hardness (ppm) |
18-526 |
220.56 |
16-252 |
74.12 |
.035 |
Chloride (ppm) |
8.31-3230.57 |
936.06 |
4.01-1168.33 |
210.92 |
.021 |
Nitrate (ppm) |
ND-2.11 |
0.91 |
ND-4.2 |
1.45 |
.002 |
Sulphate (ppm) |
2.74-420.93 |
121.25 |
1.89-116.23 |
36.53 |
.007 |
Sodium(ppm) |
16.34-1449.55 |
443.85 |
2.72-413.73 |
98.69 |
.005 |
Ammonium(ppm) |
ND-12.55 |
7.88 |
ND-12.52 |
7.44 |
.564 |
Potassium(ppm) |
9.49-76.2 |
41.82 |
0.81-27.71 |
14.49 |
.000 |
Magnesium(ppm) |
3.26-174.51 |
54.06 |
1.01-50.77 |
15.23 |
.023 |
Calcium(ppm) |
10.36-68.17 |
29.01 |
2.45-79.88 |
23.38 |
.254 |
Table 2.
Correlation matrix for the different physicochemical parameters of surface water measured in Vembanad lake and adjoining rivers. *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed), **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Table 2.
Correlation matrix for the different physicochemical parameters of surface water measured in Vembanad lake and adjoining rivers. *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed), **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
|
TRP |
TAHP |
TOP |
Cl |
NO3
|
SO4
|
Na |
NH4
|
K |
Mg |
Ca |
Temp |
pH |
EC |
TDS |
Salinity |
DO |
TH |
TRP |
1.000 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
TAHP |
-.232 |
1.000 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
TOP |
-.067 |
-.400*
|
1.000 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Cl |
.399*
|
-.359*
|
.222 |
1.000 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
NO3 |
-.054 |
.056 |
-.133 |
-.216 |
1.000 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
SO4 |
.359*
|
-.300 |
.216 |
.952**
|
-.176 |
1.000 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Na |
.424*
|
-.348 |
.229 |
.960**
|
-.177 |
.934**
|
1.000 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
NH4 |
-.352*
|
.288 |
.020 |
-.395*
|
.059 |
-.361*
|
-.337 |
1.000 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
K |
.375*
|
-.402*
|
.289 |
.713**
|
-.263 |
.708**
|
.833**
|
-.223 |
1.000 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Mg |
.469**
|
-.322 |
190 |
.953**
|
-.069 |
.950**
|
.964**
|
-.370*
|
.775**
|
1.000 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Ca |
.326 |
-.035 |
-.118 |
.682**
|
.111 |
.669**
|
.705**
|
-.132 |
.616**
|
.786**
|
1.000 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Temp |
.052 |
-.313 |
.321 |
.487**
|
-.399*
|
.519**
|
.469**
|
-.105 |
.534**
|
.431*
|
.261 |
1.000 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
pH |
-.043 |
.133 |
-.033 |
-.117 |
-.237 |
-.146 |
-.169 |
.280 |
-.212 |
-.180 |
-.156 |
.007 |
1.000 |
|
|
|
|
|
EC |
.317 |
-.364*
|
.217 |
.960**
|
-.187 |
.940**
|
.940**
|
-.415*
|
.689**
|
.937**
|
.665**
|
.444*
|
-.201 |
1.000 |
|
|
|
|
TDS |
.321 |
-.372*
|
.230 |
.956**
|
-.171 |
.941**
|
.935**
|
-.418*
|
.679**
|
.935**
|
.652**
|
.421*
|
-.199 |
.999**
|
1.000 |
|
|
|
Salinity |
.322 |
-.313 |
.222 |
.941**
|
-.107 |
.927**
|
.929**
|
-.425*
|
.662**
|
.933**
|
.644**
|
.378*
|
-.214 |
.984**
|
.988**
|
1.000 |
|
|
DO |
-.084 |
-.020 |
.354*
|
-.047 |
-.257 |
-.010 |
-.046 |
.100 |
.056 |
-.081 |
-.257 |
.396*
|
.615**
|
-.084 |
-.085 |
-.087 |
1.000 |
|
TH |
.404*
|
-.278 |
.202 |
.975**
|
-.143 |
.968**
|
.957**
|
-.386*
|
.707**
|
.974**
|
.727**
|
.442*
|
-.155 |
.959**
|
.957**
|
.957**
|
-.082 |
1.000 |
3.4. Phosphorus Speciation in Surface Water
The concentration of total reactive phosphorus (TRP) ranged from 76.66 - 676.66 ppb during the Pre-Rainy Monsoon (PRM) and 110.0 - 476.66 ppb during the Post-Rainy Monsoon (POM). However, no significant temporal variation was observed across different seasons (
Figure 4 a). Elevated phosphorus levels in lakes typically occur in areas where there is a significant influx of sediments carrying human and animal waste fertilizers into water bodies [
33]. Higher concentrations were recorded at S7 (Meenachil river mouth), where all the distributaries of River Meenachil drain into Lake Vembanad. The PO
4 concentrations were high during the PRM concerning POM. One factor that might have been involved in raising the phosphate levels is the reduced water level in the aquatic matrices leading to a concentration of ions. Other factors may involve the surge in microbial activity and the rise in phosphorus release from sediment at elevated temperatures [
34]. Similar trends were observed in phosphate content in the 'Cochin estuary, draining into Vembanad lake [
16], and River Sitalakhya (Bangladesh) [
35]. Soluble reactive phosphate concentration of over 0.025 ppm is usually considered showing eutrophic conditions [
36]. In this context, the level of PO
4 in Vembanad lake and its tributaries is high enough to support eutrophication. There was also a significant positive correlation observed between reactive phosphorus, Cl (r =.399), SO
4 (r =.359), Na (r =.424), K (r =.375), Mg (r =.469) and hardness (r =.404) (
Table 2).
The total acid hydrolysable phosphorus (TAHP) ranged from 100.0 - 1033.33 ppb and 243.33 - 1276.67 ppb in PRM and POM seasons, respectively (
Figure 4 b). TAHP concentrations were maximum at S8 (River Manimala) and S6 (River Meenachil) during PRM and POM, respectively. TAHP levels did not show significant variation (p>0.05) among seasons. In general, TAHP concentrations were noticed to be higher in POM. During POM, millions of devotees perform rituals as a part of their belief in River Pampa. Bathing and laundry activities by the devotees could very well lead to the substantial influx of polyphosphate into the aquatic matrix. Phosphates are added to detergents as sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP), and In India, their composition levels in products vary from 8 - 35% [
37]. STPP is an acid hydrolysable phosphorus that can quickly hydrolyse to orthophosphate in water. River Manimala basin also receives significant amounts of inorganic phosphate and other ions through effluents discharge from commercial centers and restaurants [
38].
Concentration of total organic phosphorus (TOP) ranged from 33.33 - 1243.34 ppb in PRM and 23.33 to 890.0 ppb in POM (
Figure 4 c). TOP recorded the maximum concentration at S3 in PRM and S5 in POM. Both are river mouths of River Meenachil. These stations are at the downstream portion of the river, which carries significant quantities of organic/inorganic wastes. Previous records have also highlighted the effects of anthropogenic influences on the River Meenachil [
39,
40,
41]. Only a few reports are focused on organic phosphorus in rivers/lakes, as it was previously believed that organic phosphorus contributes insignificantly to the phosphate levels in the water. However, recent studies have revealed that orthophosphate in agricultural watersheds can be released from particulate organic phosphorus [
42]. Because bioavailable P, besides orthophosphate, is present in the phosphorus-containing fertilizers used in agricultural watersheds. Particulate organic phosphorus in the river has a significant chance of supplying PO
43- into the river water [
43,
44]. This can trigger eutrophication in water bodies. After flowing across the extensive agricultural region, the tributaries enter Vembanad lake which may carry tons of organic phosphorus into the lake system. In Kerala, organic fertilizers like animal manure, and bone meal along with chemical fertilizers are widely applied before the onset of South-West and North-East monsoon [
29]. In our study, TOP concentration was greater when the water level is low during the PRM season. TOP showed significant (p<0.05) seasonal difference, and it is positively correlated with DO (r =.354). A significant negative correlation was observed between TOP and TAHP (
Table 4).
Total phosphorus (TP) ranged between 1020 - 2286.66 ppb in PRM and 743.33 - 1876.66 ppb in POM. We could not notice any significant (p > 0.05) variation among seasons (
Figure 4 d). The maximum value of TP was recorded at S14 (Manimala and Pamba) in PRM. With POM, the highest values were recorded at S6 (Meenachil) and S15 (Achankovil). Overall, the sampling stations in River Meenachil showed unusually higher values for most of the phosphorus fractions. The concentration gradations of the four phosphorus species observed are TRP>TAHP>TOP>TP in PRM and TRP>TOP>TAHP>TP in POM. The mean TRP, TOP and TP concentrations were high at PRM when compared to POM. The absorption of TRP and TP by phytoplankton might be one reason responsible for this phenomenon [
45]. Apart from this, the quantity of diffuse-source phosphorus entering the adjoining rivers is mostly determined by rainfall, hydrological conditions, and land use in their watersheds [
46]. The excessive fertilization of the soil with chemical fertilizers or the growth of algae that are capable to bind directly to PO
43- from the air, are both responsible for the high amounts of phosphorus [
47]. The contaminants accumulated in the estuaries because of anthropogenic activities and the dynamics of rivers and lakes may also have increased the quantities of nitrogen and phosphorus [
48]. The landscape surrounding the Vembanad lake is mainly agrarian, particularly enriched with paddy cultivation. It can contribute a large quantity of fertilizers into the aquatic system. Vembanad lake was the recipient of the 47 tonnes/year of PO
43- that is transported by the River Pamba [
29]. Correlation studies reveal that a strong positive correlation exists between TP and TOP; however, a moderate positive correlation between TP and TAHP was also noticed. No correlation existed between TRP with any other phosphate species (
Table 4). Variation of TRP, TAHP, TOP and TP concentration in water according to seasons is shown in
Figure 4, respectively.
Figure 4.
Seasonal variation in concentration of a-total reactive phosphorus (TRP), b-total acid hydrolysable phosphorus (TAHP), c-total organic phosphorus (TOP) and d-total phosphorus (TP).
Figure 4.
Seasonal variation in concentration of a-total reactive phosphorus (TRP), b-total acid hydrolysable phosphorus (TAHP), c-total organic phosphorus (TOP) and d-total phosphorus (TP).
Aquatic weeds including Eichhornia crassipes, Monochoria vaginalis, and Salvinia are proliferating unchecked in Vembanad and its interconnecting waterways. This rampant growth serves as a clear indicator of nutrient contamination in the southern part of Vembanad lake. Eichhornia crassipes, in particular, is highly prevalent in tropical and subtropical water bodies due to its high nutrient content. This nutrient abundance stems from agricultural land runoff, deforestation, and inadequate water treatment processes [
49].
Following the construction of the Thanneermukkom Bund, the southern section transformed into a dumping ground for pesticides, herbicides, fertilizers, and other agrochemicals utilized in the surrounding paddy fields. [
50]. The construction of the Thanneermukkom bund has led to the southern section of the Vembanad lake becoming a freshwater-dominant zone. This alteration was intended to facilitate double cropping in "Kuttanadu." However, the absence of salinity in the water actively encourages the growth of Eichhornia, exacerbating the proliferation of this invasive species. [
51]. The eutrophication of the Vemband lake system stands as the primary environmental factor fueling the growth of waterweeds. The combination of nutrient abundance and freshwater conditions within the lake system fosters the unchecked proliferation of these weeds. However, Eichhornia can be harvested promptly for use as compost, vermicompost, or biochar. These products not only decrease the nutrient levels in the water body but also improve soil fertility and crop productivity. [
52,
53,
54,
55].
Table 3.
Minimum, maximum and average values of total reactive phosphorus (TRP), total acid hydrolysable phosphorus (TAHP), total organic phosphorus (TOP) and total phosporus (TP).
Table 3.
Minimum, maximum and average values of total reactive phosphorus (TRP), total acid hydrolysable phosphorus (TAHP), total organic phosphorus (TOP) and total phosporus (TP).
Period of Sampling |
Phosphate species |
Lowest |
Highest |
Average |
Phosphate Species |
ANOVA(Seasonal) |
PRM |
TRP (ppb) |
76.66 |
676.66 |
332.91 |
TRP |
0.567 |
TAHP (ppb) |
100.0 |
1033.33 |
475.0 |
TOP (ppb) |
33.33 |
1243.34 |
676.04 |
TAHP |
0.064 |
TP (ppb) |
1020.0 |
2286.66 |
1483.95 |
POM |
TRP (ppb) |
110.0 |
476.66 |
303.74 |
TOP |
0.024 |
TAHP (ppb) |
243.33 |
1276.67 |
683.12 |
TOP (ppb) |
23.33 |
890.0 |
402.29 |
TP |
0.459 |
TP (ppb) |
743.33 |
1876.66 |
1389.16 |
Table 4.
Correlation between phosphate species, correlation is significant at p<0.05.
Table 4.
Correlation between phosphate species, correlation is significant at p<0.05.
|
TRP |
TAHP |
TOP |
TP |
TRP |
1 |
|
|
|
TAHP |
-0.232 |
1 |
|
|
TOP |
-0.067 |
-0.400*
|
1 |
|
TP |
0.11 |
0.41 |
0.60 |
1 |
3.5. Principal Component Analysis
To identify the processes driving the speciation of phosphorus (P) in the study region, we conducted a principal component analysis of P speciation and physicochemical factors in water (
Table 5). Based on the eigenvalues, we extracted four components (PC1, PC2, PC3, and PC4) using 18 variables, explaining most of the total variance, which is 78.6%. From these four components, we deduced necessary interpretations.
Explaining the physicochemical and nutrient dynamics at river-lake interfaces is a challenging endeavor since they are dynamic and complicated systems. PC1 accounted for a total variance of 51.5% and exhibited strong positive loadings on total reactive phosphorus (TRP), chloride (Cl), sulfate (SO4), sodium (Na), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), temperature, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), salinity, and total mercury (TH). The high loading of phosphate along with chloride, sodium, and potassium indicates the discharge of sewage and agricultural runoff. Correlation analysis shows that TRP has a positive correlation with Cl, SO4, Na, K, and Mg ions.
PC2 represents 13.16% variance with positive loading on dissolved oxygen (DO) and pH and negative loading on nitrate (NO3) and calcium (Ca). DO and pH have a strong positive correlation (p = 0.05, r = .615**). Eutrophication in the aquatic matrix was noted, where a strong positive correlation existed between DO and pH. Proliferation of aquatic plants was visible during the sampling time. Positive loading on total organic phosphorus (TOP) and temperature defined the third component, which made up 7.49% of the overall variance. An increase in temperature can cause sediments to release phosphorus into the water column above. Spearman’s correlation also showed a positive correlation that exists between TOP and temperature (r = .321).
PC3 shows significant negative loading of total acid-hydrolyzable phosphorus (TAHP), suggesting that the distribution of TOP in the study area is mostly associated with the input of organic matter except for detergent. PC4 comprises positive loading of ammonium (NH4) and pH; ammonium may enter water through droppings of migratory birds, poultry farming, and ammonium-based fertilizers. However, no significant correlation was observed between ammonium and pH. A diagram of factor loading for the variables obtained from PCA is given in
Figure 5.
Table 5.
Principal component analysis.
Table 5.
Principal component analysis.
|
Component |
C1 |
C2 |
C3 |
C4 |
TRP |
.454 |
-.113 |
-.010 |
-.134 |
TAHP |
-.177 |
.135 |
-.801 |
.110 |
TOP |
.085 |
.227 |
.791 |
.048 |
Cl |
.965 |
.062 |
.071 |
-.104 |
NO3
|
-.072 |
-.715 |
-.051 |
.133 |
SO4
|
.932 |
.081 |
.074 |
-.076 |
Na |
.940 |
-.039 |
.103 |
-.066 |
NH4
|
-.314 |
-.049 |
.062 |
.809 |
K |
.817 |
-.062 |
.337 |
.000 |
Mg |
.948 |
-.062 |
.073 |
-.047 |
Ca |
.702 |
-.520 |
-.074 |
.348 |
Temperature |
.435 |
.357 |
.476 |
.176 |
pH |
-.112 |
.599 |
-.178 |
.598 |
Conductivity |
.932 |
.057 |
.190 |
-.153 |
TDS |
.928 |
.037 |
.188 |
-.159 |
Salinity |
.934 |
.066 |
.182 |
-.154 |
DO |
-.034 |
.885 |
.130 |
.165 |
Hardness |
.966 |
.064 |
.133 |
-.084 |
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.
Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization.
Rotation converged in 6 iterations
Figure 5.
Principal component analysis-factor loadings for the variables.
Figure 5.
Principal component analysis-factor loadings for the variables.
3.6. Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA)
Normally, cluster analysis serves to elucidate similarities between sampling sites. However, in this study, we employed hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) to group sites with similar origins of pollutants and comparable water quality parameters. The HCA generated a dendrogram (
Figure 6), revealing four significant clusters with related characteristics.
Cluster 1 included sites S2 (Illikkal), S13 (Chithirapally), S6 (Sooryakalady), S15 (Peringilipuram), S8 (Thengeli), and S10 (Arattupuzha). Sites S2 and S6 denote river points of the Meenachil river, while S15, S8, and S10 represent individual river points of the Achankovil, Manimala, and Pamba rivers, respectively. In Cluster 1, parameters such as electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), salinity, total mercury (TH), chloride (Cl), sulfate (SO4), sodium (Na), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), and magnesium (Mg) exhibited lower values.
Cluster 2 comprises stations S3 (Cheepunkal), S16 (Vembanad middle), S5 (Kaipuzhamuttu), S12 (Puthankayal), and S9 (Pallikayal). Points S3, S5, S12, and S9 are river–lake interface points, while S16 is entirely within the lake. Various physicochemical parameters (EC, TDS, TH, salinity, Cl, SO4, Na, Mg, and K) were significantly higher at these points.
Cluster 3 corresponds to S1 (Achinakam) and S7 (Meenachil river mouth). A sharp increase in conductivity, TDS, salinity, hardness, Cl, and SO4 was observed from S1 to S7.
Cluster 4 corresponds to S11 (Vilakumaram), S14 (Marthandam), and S4 (Kavanattinkara). In these locations the physicochemical parameters and ions like Cl, Na, K, and Mg were similar in concentration at cluster 4, with high values observed at these points.