1. Introduction

2. Digital Twin Simulation Tools and Methods

Case Study 1

In this case study, the Elswick district of Newcastle upon Tyne (England, UK) is taken into consideration.

A separate study which had been undertaken in July 2022 by Eljay Research [39], commissioned jointly by Newcastle City Council and Northumbria University as part of a joint Net Zero Innovation project - funded by the {English] Local Government Association (and in turn from the UK’s Department of Levelling Up, Housing and Communities) and co-administered nationally by University College London [40] - had conducted in-depth surveys with 160 residents of the Elswick ward. These were conducted either by post, online or face-to-face. This consultation was carried out to gauge the interest of the residents in a Community Car Club (which would include an EVCS). The survey took into consideration the effect of the participant’s age, ethnic origin, mobility disabilities and household composition on their intrigue in the Community Car Club. The findings of the survey concluded that the district consisted of a larger percentage of younger adult residents, with over 40% of the local population under the age of 39. Young residents of the ward were more willing to support the idea [39].

Figure 2. Elswick District of Newcastle upon Tyne, England, UK. Source: Adapted from [38; credit for original figure: Adrian McLoughlin, Newcastle City Council].

Figure 2. Elswick District of Newcastle upon Tyne, England, UK. Source: Adapted from [38; credit for original figure: Adrian McLoughlin, Newcastle City Council].

The Elswick ward of Newcastle upon Tyne would thus be a prime location to install an EVCS. The first charging point would be placed on the neighbourhood’s main road. This is an ideal location for residential use because the locals could easily access it without much delay due to traffic. The second charging point is considered to be located in a small parking space in the neighbourhood where the charging station could be used by the locals and be easily accessed by the EVs parked in the parking lot. The third charging station could be established in the parking lot near the main road. It could be accessed by both local and nonlocal users of EVs. The main road has local shops whose customers could charge their vehicles. In the survey mentioned above, participants had stressed upon the fact that distance and accessibility to the EVCS would be highly important for future use of the service by the residents. As such, they preferred the parking lots the most [39].

In order to estimate the active power (the power that is actually doing the work, measured in kW) from the apparent power (measured in KVA), one needs to consider the power factor. For a grid operator or DSO Distribution System Operator, KVA is the measure of the demand (e.g. the amount of power required to run chargers). It is found by VxA. The difference between the active power and apparent power is the reactive power (the power that is wasted, for example, by the resistance of the power cables). When one studies the load to a distribution network, we need to consider the resistance of the cables and capacitance/inductance; see sub-figure (b) in Figure 1 by Carvalho et al. [41] The equation is: Active Power = Apparent Power X Power Factor.

The first location would be suitable to have Level 1 AC chargers because of the low required chargers and rated power. For the second location, it would be preferable to install Level 2 AC chargers to accommodate accessibility by the households nearby. Level 3 DCFCs could be set up in the third location due to high demand for access by locals, small businesses, and passing EV owners such as cars, buses, bicycles etc.

Table 1. Charateristics of considered EVCS points for Elswick District, Newcastle upon Tyne.

Table 1. Charateristics of considered EVCS points for Elswick District, Newcastle upon Tyne.

Electric Vehicle Charging Station (EVCS) Point No.	Location Coordinates	No. of Chargers	Line length (km)
EV Charging Station Point 1	54.971124498371, -1.6340286359224014	2	0.014
EV Charging Station Point 2	54.97186092380118, -1.6364106775778577	4	0.245
EV Charging Station Point 3	54.97151557689389, -1.6334706359224032	6	0.101

Case Study 2

The second case study considers the EVCS to be set up in the city center of Newcastle upon Tyne, which is a commercial area [23].

Figure 3. Newcastle upon Tyne city centre Source: Adapted from [38]; credit for original figure: Adrian McLoughlin, Newcastle City Council.

Figure 3. Newcastle upon Tyne city centre Source: Adapted from [38]; credit for original figure: Adrian McLoughlin, Newcastle City Council.

The first charging point could be located in a small car park. It would have a limited number of chargers due to constricted space. It would be an ideal location for nearby private offices, businesses, and apartments. The second location is at a bus station in the center of Eldon Square. Electric buses could charge while waiting for passengers to arrive or charge overnight. The third location would be at a multistorey parking lot, where EV owners can park their car and charge it without any attention. This would be an ideal location with regards to time management as the users would prefer to park and charge their EVs as they visit the shopping center or use any other nearby transportation such as the metro or bus. The establishment of an EVCS at this location would also be an excellent investment by a EVCS services company due to the high volume of EVs in the parking lot.

At the first location, an ideal type of charge would be Level 1 AC due to the low demand for power and chargers in the area. As for the second charging point, since ICE buses still have the most function at present, it would be more suitable to place Level 2 AC chargers, but preliminary study could take place for future investment as EV buses will overrule ICE buses. Finally, for the third charging point, due to high power demand at the multistorey parking lot, it would be ideal for placing many DCFC EV chargers with high power ratings.

Table 1. charateristics of considered EVCS points for commercial city centre area, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.

Table 1. charateristics of considered EVCS points for commercial city centre area, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.

Charging Point No.	Location Coordinates	No. of Chargers	Line length (km)
Charging Point 1	54.97614593907092, -1.6162228847542444	2	0.23
Charging Point 2	54.975735707661045, -1.615957906832188	4	0.05
Charging Point 3	54.97614593907092, -1.6162228847542444	6	0.11

3. Results from Technical Analysis, Simulations and Design

3.1. 3-Bus Single Line System

First, the fundamentals of the model have been designed, which are the external grid, transformer, bus, lines, and loads. After the importation of Pandapower’s libraries and submodules, an empty network (net) has been designed for the required system. The parameter initial voltage magnitude per unit (p.u.) has been set as flat and the initial voltage angle (p.u.) has been set to DC.

Three buses (b0-b2) have been created and each of them specify their own network and grid voltage level. The external grid is specified in the code as well. A 25MVA 10/10kV transformer sub-station has also been developed between the buses b1 and b2. To finish the system topology, the loads have been created and the code indicates the bus connection, real power (MW), and name. The code used to set-up the time-series module without data control is given in Table 4 below.

Table 2. Configuraiton of 3-bus system without control data.

Table 2. Configuraiton of 3-bus system without control data.

1	import pandapower as pp
2
3	# create an empty network
4	net = pp.create_empty_network()
5	pp.set_user_pf_options(net, init_vm_pu=”flat”, init_va_degree=”dc”, calculate_voltage_angles=True)
6
7	# create buses
8	b0 = pp.create_bus(net, 33)
9	b1 = pp.create_bus(net, 11)
10	b2 = pp.create_bus(net, 11)
11	b4 = pp.create_bus(net, 11)
12
13	# create external grid
14	pp.create_ext_grid(net, b0, name=”external grid”)
15
16	# create transformer
17	pp.create_transformer(net, b0, b1, “25 MVA 110/10 kV”, name=’transformer’)
18
19	# create lines
20	pp.create_line(net, b1, b2, 0.01, “149-AL1/24-ST1A 10.0”, name=”line1”)
21	pp.create_line(net, b1, b3, 0.24, “149-AL1/24-ST1A 10.0”, name=”line2”)
22
23	# create loads
24	pp.create_load(net, b2, p_mw=0.011, name=’location1’)
25	pp.create_load(net, b3, p_mw=0.06, name=’EV power capacity’)
26
27	pp.runpp(net)
28	print(net.res_line)

The power consumption data has been inputted to simulate the impact of the grid under these conditions over a day. The data represents the hourly EV power consumption at a specific time period, between 12 a.m.-12 p.m. The data has been imported as a data frame which indicates the excel file, sheet name and column. A controller that uses the time series module has then been made to read data from the generated DataSource and write it to the grid (net). After the values have been updated, the outputs of the module have been formatted and stored using the tool OutputWriter.

The EV power consumption has been assumed to be constant every hour and a timestep function is set from 0-23 hours (24 hours in total). An excel sheet has been created with two columns, the first column indicates the number of timesteps and the other indicates the resulting value. A time-series module has then been run which creates a loop over every timestep and the controllers would update the element variables. The results have been used to plot a visual graph. The code used to set-up the time-series module with control data is given in Figure 5 below.

Table 3. Configuration of 3-bus system with control data.

Table 3. Configuration of 3-bus system with control data.

1	import pandapower as pp
2	import pandas as pd
3	from pandapower.timeseries.data_sources.fram_data import DFData
4	import pandapower.control as control
5	from pandapower.timeseries.output_writer import OutputWriter
6	from pandapower.timeseries.run_time_series import run_timeseries
7	import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
8
9	# create an empty network
10	net = pp.create_empty_network()
11	pp.set_user_pf_options(net, init_vm_pu=”flat”, init_va_degree=”dc”, calculate_coltage_angles=True)
12
13	# create buses
14	b0 = pp.create_bus(net, 33)
15	b1 = pp.create_bus(net, 11)
16	b2 = pp.create_bus(net, 11)
17	b3 = pp.create_bus(net, 11)
18
19	# create external grid
20	pp.create_ext_grid(net, b0, name=”external grid”)
21
22	# create transformer
23	pp.create_transformer(net, b0, b1, “25 MVA 110/10 kV”, name=’transformer’)
24
25	# create lines
26	pp.create_line(net, b1, b2, 0.01, “149-AL1/24-ST1A 10.0”, name=”line1”)
27	pp.create_line(net, b1, b3, 0.24, “149-AL1/24-ST1A 10.0”, name=”line2”)
28
29	# create loads
30	pp.create_load(net, b2, p_mw=0.011, name=’location1’)
31	pp.create_load(net, b3, p_mw=0.06, name=’Ev power capacity’)
32
33	# create data frame and data source
34	df = pd.read_excel(“hourly EV energy demand.xlsx”, sheet_name=”Sheet1”, index_col=0)
35	ds = DFData(df)
36
37	# create controller
38	const_load = control.ConstControl(net, ‘load’, ‘p_mw’, element_index=net.load.index, profile_name=”EV power consumption”, data_source=ds)
39
40	# create output writer
41	ow = OutpotWriter(net, time_steps=(0,23), output_path=”./results/”, output_file_type=”.xlsx”)
42	ow.log_variable(“res_bus”, “p_mw”)
43
44	# create timeseries
45	run_timeseries(net, n_timesteps=(0,23))
46
47	# read results from excel file
48	df = pd.read_excel(“./results/res_bus/p_mw.xlsx”, index_col=0)
49
50	# plot results from excel file using data frame
51	df.plot()
52	plt.show()

3.3. Cost Analysis

AutoDesign has been used to estimate the budget of the potential connection cost (at 2022 prices). To estimate the cost of an EVCS, the three different levels of charging have been considered: Level 1 AC 120V (1.4kW), Level 2 AC 240V (3.3-6.6kW), and DC Fast Charging (25-50kW).

Table 4. Cost Breakdown of EV charging stations.

Table 4. Cost Breakdown of EV charging stations.

Item Name	Description	Qty	Unit Price (GBP)	Total Price (GBP)	Reference
Type of Chargers
AC Level 1	120 V	1	260		www.alibaba.com
AC Level 2	240V	1	800		www.alibaba.com
DC Fast	480V+	1	18000		www.alibaba.com
Type of Charging cables
AC Level 1		1	16		www.alibaba.com
AC Level 2		1	35		www.alibaba.com
DC Fast		1	105		www.alibaba.com
Office Components
Desktop	Design, simulation and monitoring	3	1,200	3,600	www.alibaba.com
Monitor		3	450	1,350	www.alibaba.com
Desk		3	560	1,680	www.alibaba.com
Chair		3	230	690	www.alibaba.com

Table 5. AutoDesign Budget Estimation for each considered location.

Table 5. AutoDesign Budget Estimation for each considered location.

Location	Charging point	Final price without VAT (GBP)	VAT 20% (GBP)	Final price with VAT (GBP)
Elswick Row	1	4,500	900	5,400
	2	48,500	9,700	58,200
	3	23,000	4,600	27,600
Eldon Square	1	78,500	15,700	94,200
	2	13,200	2,640	15,840
	3	25,000	5,000	30,000

4. Bus

Figure 6. Parameters and results values of the 3-bus system.

Figure 6. Parameters and results values of the 3-bus system.

Figure 7. Bus results of 3-bus system without control data.

Figure 7. Bus results of 3-bus system without control data.

Figure 8. Power loss of transformer in 3-bus system without control data.

Figure 8. Power loss of transformer in 3-bus system without control data.

Figure 9. Loading percent of transformer in the 3-bus system without control data.

Figure 9. Loading percent of transformer in the 3-bus system without control data.

Figure 10. Simulation as to how the local grid would react in a day using EV power consumption data.

Figure 10. Simulation as to how the local grid would react in a day using EV power consumption data.

Figure 11. Voltage magnitude of buses in the 3-bus system with control data.

Figure 11. Voltage magnitude of buses in the 3-bus system with control data.

Figure 12. Active power of external grid in the 3-bus system with control data.

Figure 12. Active power of external grid in the 3-bus system with control data.

5. Bus

Figure 13. Bus results of the 6-bus system without control data.

Figure 13. Bus results of the 6-bus system without control data.

Figure 14. Transformer results of the 6-bus system without control data.

Figure 14. Transformer results of the 6-bus system without control data.

Figure 15. Active power of buses in the 6-bus system with control data.

Figure 15. Active power of buses in the 6-bus system with control data.

Figure 16. Voltage magnitude of b1-b5 in the 6-bus system with control data.

Figure 16. Voltage magnitude of b1-b5 in the 6-bus system with control data.

Figure 17. Power loss of transformer in 6-bus system with control data.

Figure 17. Power loss of transformer in 6-bus system with control data.

Figure 18. Loading percent of transformer in the 6-bus system with control data.

Figure 18. Loading percent of transformer in the 6-bus system with control data.

6. Discussion

7. Conclusions

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