1. Introduction

2. Material and Methods

3. Nutritional Composition of Pseudo Cereals and Cereals

3.3. Protein in Pseudo Cereals and Cereals

The protein content and profile of all plants are determined by genotype and growing conditions. Compared to cereals, pseudo cereals offer superior nutritional value, primarily due to their higher protein levels, which vary from 9.1 to 16.7% quinoa [35,38,60], 13.1-21.5% for amaranth [34–36,50] and buckwheat 5.7–14.2% [50–52,60–62] and cereals wheat 8-19.0% [45,46,54–59], rice 6.8-7.3% [47,48,62] and corn 8.8-9.4% [41,42] Table 1.

The major protein fractions found in qunioa grains are 11S-type globulins and 2S albumins, which account for 27.9-60.2% and 13.2-42.3% of total seed proteins, respectively, followed by glutelins (18.1-31.6) and Prolamins comprise a lower protein proportion (0.5-19.3% of total seed protein) [63,64]. Amaranthine, an essential protein found in the globulins portion with a molecular weight of more than 300kDa and three subunits: pro amaranthine, one basic peptide, and one acidic [35]. Buckwheat seeds include primarily 8S and 13S globulin proteins. Furthermore, 2S globulins, glutelins, and prolamins are minor protein components of common and tartary buckwheat [22].

Quinoa is an excellent source of protein [65]. According to Abugoch's reports [66], the proteins found in quinoa grains include albumins (35%) and globulins (37%), with a smaller proportion of prolamins. Quinoa proteins are of equal grade to milk protein (casein) provide all essential amino acids [66,67]; thus, it is considered a complete diet [68]. Electrophoretic investigations revealed that quinoa proteins are composed of two major fractions: 11S-globulin and 2S-protein, 11S-globulin, also known as chenopodium [69], comprises nearly 37 percent of the total protein. This fraction consists of polypeptides with molecular weights of (22-23 and 32-39 kDa), as well as a relatively low concentration of amino acids (methionine and cysteine). The 2S-protein fraction has a molecular weight of 9 kDa and is rich in cysteine, arginine, and histidine, but low in methionine [69]. Proteins from amaranth seeds are rich in essential amino acids and have a high digestibility of around 90% [71–73]. Three primary proteins—albumin (40%), globulin (20%), and glutelin (25–30%)—as well as a little amount of prolamine (2-4%) are present in amaranth grains [74]. As a result of their inability to produce gluten, amaranth flour is recommended for those with celiac disease. Furthermore amaranth contain Lysine, which is a limit amino acid in cereals grains like wheat and others ranging from 363 to 421 mg/g N, the same quantity found in soy [71]. Additionally, compared to basic legumes (1.4% on average), amaranth proteins have a significant number of amino acids containing sulphur (2–5%), methionine, cystine, and cysteine [55,75,76].

Table 1. Nutritional composition of pseudocerals (quinoa, amaranth and buckwheat); and cerals (wheat, rice and corn) grains in percentage (%).

Table 1. Nutritional composition of pseudocerals (quinoa, amaranth and buckwheat); and cerals (wheat, rice and corn) grains in percentage (%).

Pseudo cereals
Whole grains	Moisture	Fat	Ash		Carbohydrates	Starch	Crude protein	References
Quinoa	8.2–13.1	4.9-7.5	4.1		48.5–77.0	58.1–64.2	9.1–16.7	[35,37,38,60,62,76]
Amaranth	8.9–9.4	6.4 to 8.0	3.3		63.1–70.0	65.0–75.0	13.1–21.5	[34–36,50,60,77]
Buckwheat	10-11	1.4- 7.4	1.33–3.09%		62.1–82.1	54.5–57.4	5.7–14.2	[35,39,40,51,52,60,78]
Cereals
Whole grains	Moisture	Fat		Ash	Carbohydrates	Starch	Crude protein	References
Wheat	12-13	1.72-3.3		1.7-1.9	62.6-83.1	60-75	8-19.0	[43,45,46,54–59]
Rice	5.0-12.7	1.5-2.2		0.5-3.5	71.1-78.2	50- 90	6.8-7.3	[47,48,62]
Corn	10.4	3.8-4.7		1.33-1.44	65.0-74.3	72.8	8.8-9.4	[41,42]

It is known that buckwheat is an excellent source of lipids, antioxidants, organic acids, dietary fiber, phenolic acid, and high biological value proteins that do not form gluten and a balanced amino acid composition (high quantities of lysine and arginine, compared to cereals). Moreover, buckwheat seeds are mostly composed of two types of proteins: 8S and 13S globulins, also contain small amounts of 2S globulins, glutelins, and prolamins [79]. Buckwheat contains 5–14% protein, of which 35% is found in the endosperm, 55% in the embryo and the remaining portion is found in the shell [80,81]. On the other hand, cereal proteins contain 80–90% protein in the endosperm and 10-15% of the embryo [82].

Globally, rice as is the primary source of nutrition for the majority of people. According to Hirawan et al [47], 100 g of brown rice contains about 7.3 g of protein, 2.2 g of fat, and 71.1 g of carbohydrates. Furthermore, rice bran contains (10-15%) protein, making it more superior among other cereal grains due to its unique allergenic and anticancer attributes [83]. Similarly, whole corn possesses 8.8% protein, 3.8% fat, 1.33% ash, and 65.0% carbs and whole wheat contain 12.7% protein, 1.6% ash, 1.72% fat, and 61.6% carbs in100 g of whole wheat [43].

Table 1 represent the nutritional composition of pseudo cereal and cereals and the data indicates that buckwheat carbohydrate content ranges from 62.6 to 82.1% very close to that of wheat ranges 62.1 to 83.1%. According to the literature, wheat has the highest carbohydrate content while amaranth has the lowest, followed by buckwheat, rice, quinoa, and corn. In terms of protein content, Amaranth has the highest percentage (13.1-21.5%), while rice has the lowest (6.8-7.3%). The descending order of protein content of whole grains cereals and pseudo cereals is amaranth, wheat, quinoa, buckwheat corn, and rice, indicating that pseudo cereals have the highest protein content when compared to cereals. Furthermore, rice has the highest starch content among all other cereals grains, while buckwheat has the lowest; both wheat and amaranth have values of 60-75% and 65.0-75.0 % which are closely related to each other, respectively. Pseudo cereals are a popular trend in human diets because they are gluten-free (GF) and have high nutritional and nutraceutical value. Furthermore, consumption of these pseudo cereals plays an essential role in lowering the risk of numerous chronic non communicable diseases, such as T2D [6,7,24,25] and cancer [8–10,26,27]. In addition a recent, has highlighted the potential health benefits of pseudo cereals, presenting these crops as valuable resources for functional food creation [50,51]. However, more experiments are needed to confirm, carbohydrate, and protein contents of pseudo cereals and cereals.

3.4. Amino Acids in Pseudo Cereals and Cereals

Pseudo cereals have a balanced amino acid composition with greater amounts of lysine and arginine as compared to cereal grains, and have been recognized as a good source of high biological value proteins that do not produce gluten [84–87]. As previously discussed in the nutritional composition section of pseudo cereals and cereals, several studies have confirmed that quinoa contains high-quality protein and classified as gluten-free play a key role in celiac diseases [68]. Furthermore quinoa protein is a complete protein, containing all of the necessary amino acids, which are required for human growth and development and have a protein efficiency ratio comparable to milk casein [88]. Quinoa's main protein components are globulins and albumins [64,68]. Quinoa protein 2S-type albumin has a high cysteine, arginine, and histidine content [89]. Qunia contains the highest amount of Leucine 2.3-9.4 g/100 g, followed by Methionine 0.3-9.1 g/100 g protein, and the lowest concentration of Tryptophan 0.6-1.9 g/100 g protein in essential amino acids [61], while in non-essential amino acids, quinoa contains the highest concentration of Arginine, 6.9-13.6 g/100 g, and the lowest concentration of Cysteine, 0.1-2.7 g/100 g, respectively [61,64] Table 2. Amranth seeds proteins are rich in essential amino acids with a high digestibility of around 90% [70–72]. Amranth contain the highest conetnet of Lysine 4.8–8.00g/100 g followed by Leucine 4.2–6.9 g/100 g protein being lowest in Tryptophan 0.9–1.8 g/100 g in essential amino acid [50], while in non-essential amino acid Amaranth contain highest content of Glutamate, 14.4–17.7 g/100 g and lowest in Cysteine 2.1–3.6 g/100g respectively [36,55,63]. Furthermore, as discussed in the previous section, the major protein in buckwheat is a 1

3S globulin, which is regarded a rare vegetable protein with blood cholesterol-lowering properties. Buckwheat also includes lectins, which help to reduce the proliferation of both spontaneous and induced tumors [90]. Buckwheat has a balanced amino acid content, with a significant amount of lysine (4.2-8.6 g/100 g) and low levels of tryptophan (0.9-1.8 g/100 g) among essential amino acids amino acids [52,62], while contains the highest amount of Glutamate (23.2-24.4 g/100 g) and the lowest amount of Cysteine (0.8-3.5 g/100 g) among non-essential amino acids [52,61].

Wheat contain the highest amount of Leucine (4.1-6.3 g/100 g) and the lowest amount of Tryptophan (0.7-1.2 g/100 g) among essential amino acids [49,91,92], while it contains the highest amount of Serine (6.1-6.7 g/100 g) and the lowest amount of Proline (1.5-2.3 g/100 g) among non-essential amino acids [92–95]. Rice contain the highest amount of Phenylalanine 5.2-9.1 g/100 g, followed by Leucine 8.2-8.9 g/100 g protein and the lowest amount of Tryptophan 1.0-1.5 g/100 g in essential amino acids [49,91,96], while rice has the highest level of Glutamate 7.2-20.8 g/100 g and the lowest level of Cysteine 1.6-2.0 g/100 g in non-essential amino acids [93,96]. Furthermore corn contain the highest content of Phenylalanine 4.8-10.6 g/100 g, followed by Valine 3.6-5.1 g/100 g protein, and the lowest content of Methionine 0.6-0.7 g/100 g in essential amino acids [49,91,93,96], while corn has the highest content of Glutamate, 7.13-15.8 g/100 g, and the lowest content of Cysteine, 2.1-2.3 g/100 g, respectively [93,96,97].

Table 2. Essential and non-essential amino acids in pseudo cereals and cereals.

Table 2. Essential and non-essential amino acids in pseudo cereals and cereals.

Essential amino acids
Pseudco Cereals
Whole grains	Th	Va	Ph	Is	Le	Me	Tr	Ly	Hi	References
Quinoa	2.1–8.9	0.8–6.1	3.0–4.7	0.8–7.4	2.3-9.4	0.3–9.1	0.6–1.9	2.4–7.8	1.4–5.4	[61]
Amaranth	3.3–5.0	3.9–5.0	3.7–4.7	2.7–4.2	4.2–6.9	1.6–4.6	0.9–1.8	4.8–8.0	1.9-3.8	[36,50]
Buckwheat	3.9–4.0	2.3–6.1	1.3–7.2	1.1–4.1	2.2–7.6	0.5–2.5	0.7-1.8	4.2–8.6	1.8-4.9	[52,63]
Cereals
wheat	1.8-2.7	2.4-4.1	2.8-8.1	2.2-4.1	4.1-6.3	0.9-1.2	0.7-1.2	1.7-2.6	0.2- 1.3	[49,91,92]
rice	3.2-3.7	4.5-4.5	5.2-9.1	2.8-4.5	8.2-8.9	1.0-1.6	1.0-1.5	3.3-3.8	0.1-1.7	[49,91,96]
corn	1.1-4.0	3.6-5.1	4.8-10.6	2.3-4.6	1.3-3.8	0.6-0.7	0.6- 1.1	2.6-1.9	2.3- 2.6	[49,91,93,96]
Non-essential amino acids
Pseudco Cereals
Whole grains	As	Glu	Se	Gly	Ar	Al	Ty	Cy	Pr	References
Quinoa	8.0	13.2	3.4–5.7	2.2–6.1	6.9–13.6	3.2–5.7	2.5–3.7	0.1–2.7	2.3–5.5	[61,64]
Amaranth	7.3–10.7	14.4–17.7	4.9–9.3	6.7–15.2	8.7–15.6	3.5–6.2	3.3–3.7	2.1–3.6	2.82–4.6	[33,55]
Buckwheat	7.6–16.6	23.2–24.4	3.2–8.6	6.2–13.2	10.5-11.3	4.6–9.6	0.6–4.9	0.8–3.5	2.6–8.8	[52,62]
Cereals
wheat	4.2-6.6	2.8-3.5	6.1-6.9	4.6-6.31	4.7-7.2	3.8-5.4	1.8-3.8	1.4-3.0	1.5-2.3	[92–95]
rice	4.2-10.7	7.2-20.8	4.0-5.7	3.9-5.2	7.2-8.2	4.5-6.3	2.3-3.2	1.6-2.0	4.8-5.4	[93,96]
corn	4.7-6.0	7.13-15.8	5.0-6.4	2.5-4.0	4.3-10.3	5.1-7.9	3.0-4.8	2.1-2.3	1.1-2.8	[93,96,98]

Table 2: Amino acid compositions of pseudo cereals and cereals (g/100 g protein); T;Threonine, V;Valine, P;Phenylalanine, I;Isoleucine, L;Leucine, M;Methionine, T;Tryptophan, L;Lysine, A;Aspartate, G;Glutamate, S;Serine, H;Histidine, G;Glycine, A;Arginine, A;Alanine, T;Tyrosine, C;Cysteine, P;Proline.

As shown in Table 2, in the review of 9 essential amino acids (g/100 g protein) and 9 non-essential amino acids (g/100 g protein) in pseudo cereals quinoa, amaranth, and buckwheat; and cereals wheat, rice, and corn. In essential amino acids, except for quinoa, amaranth and buckwheat contains highest content of Lysine, while it is ranked fourth in quinoa. Furthermore lysine is most prevalent in pseudo cereal grains, and phenylalanine is most prevalent in cereal grains. Most interestingly, the lysine content of all pseudo cereal grains is closely related to each other, whereas cereal grains are lower in lysine. Methionine is second in quinoa, Leucine in amaranth, while leucine is ranked second in wheat and rice, and Valine is second in corn. In terms of non-essential amino acids, quinoa and wheat contain the most Arginine, while amaranth, buckwheat, rice, and corn contain the most Glutamate. Except for wheat, all other grains contain a small amount of Cysteine, which is ranked second in wheat, and the ranking becomes more variable in the rest of the essential amino acids found in pseudo cereals and cereals. Corn, quinoa, rice, buckwheat, wheat, and amaranth are in descending order of the 9 essential amino acids (g/100 g protein), whereas buckwheat, rice, amaranth, corn, quinoa, and wheat are in descending order of the 9 non-essential amino acids. Based on these comparisons, each grain has a unique amino acid composition. However, more research is needed on cereals, particularly pseudo cereals, which are a current trend in human diets because they are gluten-free (GF) grains with excellent nutritional and nutraceutical properties [68,84–86], to confirm the contents of essential and non-essential amino acids in protein of various whole grains.

1.

Dietary fibers and phenolic acids in pseudo cereals and cereals, and their antioxidant properties.

Dietary fiber is defined by the European Food Safety Authority [99] as "non-digestible carbohydrates plus lignin, including non-starch polysaccharides". Functional fiber is made up of isolated, nondigestible carbohydrates that have physiological benefits in humans [100]. Dietary fibers are divided into two categories depending on their water solubility: soluble (e.g., β-glucan) and insoluble (e.g., arabinoxylan AX) [101]. AX molecules consist of a linear backbone of D-xylopyranosyl residues connected by β-(1-4) glycosidic interactions, α-L-arabinofuranosyl residues can be linked to D-xylopyranosyl residues at O-2 and O-3 locations (Figure 2) . AX has four structural elements: non-substituted, O-2 or O-3 monosubstituted, and disubstituted D-xylopyranosyl [102]. Ferulic acid may be esterified with arabinose residues at the O-5 position [103]. These ferulic acid structures can build bridges between AX chains, increasing the AX molecular weight while decreasing its water extractability. The presence of ester-linked hydroxycinnamic acids distinguishes graminaceous AXs. Trans-ferulic acid is the most abundant phenolic acid generated during alkaline hydrolysis of cereal grain cell wall material, present in considerably smaller amounts with cis-ferulic, sinapic, and trans- and cis-p-coumaric acids [104]. Ferulates and diferulates also interact with lignin, forming AX-lignin cross-links. However, on a molar basis, more than half of the ferulates in grains are monomeric and do not form dimers [105].

Amaranth, quinoa, and buckwheat are pseudo cereals with a long history of use as food sources having extremely interesting nutritional properties [106]. Pseudo cereals have grown in popularity as a component in gluten-free goods during the last decade. Although dietary fiber amount varies across quinoa species, quinoa contains around 7 to 26% TDF [35,61,66,107,108], whereas amaranth's total dietary fiber content varies between 9 and 21% (dry weight basis) [35,50,107,109,110]. Of the pseudo cereal grains, buckwheat has the lowest amount of dietary fiber [33,35,51,111] (Table 3). Comparing quinoa and amaranth contain higher amount of dietary fiber (~22-26%) than wheat (about 17%) [112,113], rice (about 10%) [114,115], corn (about 19%) [116,117]. In comparison to amaranth and quinoa, buckwheat groats have a lower total dietary fiber content (7–19.0%) [33,35,51,111], the water soluble fiber in buckwheat seeds is mostly classified as pectin, arabinogalactan, and xyloglucan [118]. Moreover, pectin was found in the outer and inner epidermis' cell walls as well as the endosperm of buckwheat seeds [118].

Phenolic acids are a type of secondary metabolite that belongs to a larger group of phenolic compounds found throughout the plant kingdom. They have been considered essential dietary ingredients contributing to flavor, color, and nutritional value. Phenolic compounds are distinguished by the presence of one or more aromatic rings linked by one or more hydroxyl groups. Benzoic acid and cinnamic acid derivatives are examples of phenolic acids. In general, "phenolic acids" refer to phenols with a single carboxylic acid activity. These naturally occurring phenolic acids have two distinct carbon structures: hydroxycinnamic and hydroxybenzoic. Although the fundamental structure stays constant, the number and location of hydroxyl groups on the aromatic ring dictate the diversity. Hydroxycinnamic acids are a group of aromatic carboxylic acid with a C6-C3 structure, whereas hydroxybenzoic acids are C6-C1 (Figure 2).

In (Table 3), we reviewed the phenolic acids in targeted cereal grains, indicating that cereal grains have a higher amount of hydroxycinnamic than pseudocereal grains. On the other hand, pseudo cereal grains have the highest amount of hydroxybenzoic acids compared to cereal grains. Quinoa grain contains the highest phenolic acid level with 1672-3083 µg/g dry weight [119], whereas buckwheat has the lowest amount contains 49.9 µg/g [120] followed by corn 601-1740 µg/g [121,122], wheat has 658-1171 µg/g [123], amaranth has 212-570 µg/g [50,51], and rice has 300-360 µg/g [121].

Hydroxycinnamic and hydroxybenzoic acids are phytochemicals found in certain foods.It should be highlighted that in humans, circulating hydroxybenzoic acids can be the result of bacterially mediated polyphenol metabolism in the lower intestine [124,125]].Whole grains cereals and pseudo-cereals have differing amounts of hydroxycinnamic and hydroxybenzoic acids. According to Table 2, the highest content of hydroxycinnamic acids is found in corn (5.7-1387.5 µg/g) [126,127], while the lowest content is found in amaranth (1.6-55.4 µg/g ) [128] followed by rice (1.0-301.7 µg/g) [121,129], wheat (3.4-195.0 µg/g) [129,130], quinoa (7.0 to 150.0 µg/g) [131,132], and buckwheat (1.7-122.8 µg/g) [120,133] respectively. Moreover, wheat contain the highest content of of hydroxybenzoic acids (7.5 to 230.6 µg/g) [129,130] and and corn the lowest (0.5-116.5 µg/g) [126,127] followed by quinoa (13.8-110.0 µg/g) [132], amaranth (1.8-173.5 µg/g) [128], wheat (1.2-118.0 µg/g) [120,133] and rice, which ranges from 2.8 to 115.6 µg/g [126,127].

The antioxidants activities of the targeted grains are summarized in Table 4, which shows that corn contain the highest antioxidant activities among all other pseudo cereals and cereal. Cereal bran is the rich source of antioxidants activities [135]. For example, DPPH corn contain the highest content 350.29 mmol Trolox/100g [71,136] followed by rice 180.41 mmol Trolox/100g [137–139] and wheat contain the lowest among all other grains (20.9 mmol Trolox/100g) [140–144].

Compared to other grains amaranth possess the highest content of ABTS and FRAP 179.8 µmolTrolox/100g, 147.4 µmolTrolox/100g [145–147]. The content become variable in rest of grains. Overall, maize contains the highest content of antioxidant activity [136,148–150], followed by amaranth [135,146,151], quinoa [147,151–153], wheat [140–144], Buckwheat [151,154–156], rice [137–139,144].

In summary, table 3 shows that quinoa has the greatest total dietary fibre content (7 to 26%) followed by amaranth (2 to 21%), while rice has the lowest dietary fibres level among cereals (2-10%). In pseudo cereals, quinoa has the highest amount of total dietary fibres and buckwheat has the lowest, whereas corn has the highest content of total dietary fibre and rice contain the lowest. The ranking become variable in the rest of grains. Furthermore, in (Table 3), we have summarized the phenolic acids in targeted grains, which indicate that the amount of hydroxycinnamic is more abundant in cereals grains than in pseudo cereals grains. On the other hand, pseudo cereal grains have a higher content of hydroxybenzoic acids than cereal grains. According to table 4, amaranth has the highest level of antioxidant activity in pseudo cereals, whereas corn has the highest content among cereal grains. Overall, maize contains the highest content of antioxidant activity followed by amaranth, quinoa, wheat, buckwheat and rice. The rank become variable i in the remaining grains. These comparisons indicate that each grain prefers a different synthesis pathway to the others, resulting in a distinct profile of bioactive compounds in grains. Whole grains contain various nutrients, including dietary fiber, phenolic acids, and antioxidants. Table 4 shows that maize has the highest antioxidant content, whereas rice has the lowest. The germ and bran contain the majority of the bioactive components, which are reducing during the grain refining process. However, further research is needed to verify their results. Whole-grain consumption has been associated to a lower risk of chronic noncommunicable illnesses such as type 2 diabetes [6,7,24,25] and cancer [8–10,26,27], since it improves glycemic management, blood lipids, body weight, and inflammation while lowering premature mortality [102,157]. However, more study and communication on these health advantages is needed to translate the science behind these beneficial effects into useful data. Because these health advantages are interconnected, frequently synergistic, and individual-specific, it is difficult to obtain solid evidence of the health impacts associated with any bioactive component found in grain. Nowadays, consumers today are attracted to value-added products and are health-conscious, so it will be beneficial for customers if supplements are added or replace the refined grains with whole grains of high nutritional value. Furthermore, public education is also necessary to encourage people to eat more whole grains at the recommended amounts.

2.

Grains in modern time

Whole grain Cereals and pseudo-cereals are currently popular in human diets due to their high nutritional and nutraceutical value. As previously discussed in details, whole grains have excellent nutritional properties have been linked to a reduced the risk of numerous chronic non communicable diseases, including T2D [6,7,24,25] and cancer [8–10,26,27]. In this context, it was critical to review the nutritional and functional profile of whole grains, which possess a high nutritional profile and are recognized as a super grain in a modern time. Whole grains pseudo cereals and cereals are known as "the grains of the a modern time" due to their high nutritional content [158]. Pseudo cerals Quinoa(Chenopodium quinoa Willd.), Amaranth (Amaranthus spp.) and Buckwheat (Fagopyrumesculentum Moench.) are promising crops for the future; they are gluten-free and have high nutritional and nutraceutical value [50,51,68]. Furthermore, recent study has highlighted the potential health advantages of pseudo cereals, confirming these crops as essential resources for functional food development [50,51]. Furthermore, whole grain cereals such as wheat (Triticum aestivum L., Triticum durum Desf.), rice (Oryza sativa L.), and corn (Zea mays L.) are a major source of energy worldwide. Cereal grains and its products have a long history of use by human. Cereals are staple foods that provide essential nutritional value in both low and middle income countries. Both cereals and pseudocereals are abundant in protein and carbohydrates and they contain a good balanced of essential amino acid composition that is characterized by an abundance of sulfur-rich amino acids, they are also a good source of dietary fiber and phenolic acids, with the highest amount of these compounds found in bran and germ (Figure 3). Consumers nowadays are health conscious and are attracted towards value-added products, so the addition/incorporation of supplements or completely replace the refined common cereals with whole grains of higher nutritional value will benefit the consumers. There is also a need to educate the public to increase their intake of whole grains to the recommended levels.

5. Intake of of Whole Grains and Human Health

Conclusion

CrediT authorship contribution statement

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