Prerpints.org logo
Preprint
Article

Tectonic Inversion and Deformation Differences in the Transition From Ionian Basin to Apulian Platform: The Example From Ionian Islands, Greece

Altmetrics

Downloads

88

Views

34

Comments

0

A peer-reviewed article of this preprint also exists.

Submitted:

12 June 2024

Posted:

13 June 2024

You are already at the latest version

Alerts
Abstract
The studied area (the Ionian Islands: Paxoi, Lefkas, Kefalonia and Zakynthos), is situated in the western ends of Ionian Basin (IB) in contact with the Apulian Platform (AP) and named as Apulian Platform Margins (APM). The proposed model is based on fieldwork, previously published data and balanced geologic cross-sections. Late Jurassic characterizes Ionian Basin to Early Eocene NNW–SSE extension followed by Middle Eocene to Middle Miocene compression (NNW–SSE directed). The space availability, the distance of Ionian Thrust from the Kefalonia strike-slip fault (KSSF) and the altitude between Apulian platform and Ionian basin that produced during extensional regime were the main factors for the produced structures due to inversion tectonic. In Zakynthos Island, the space availability (far from KFT), and the reactivation of normal bounding faults formed an open geometry anticline (Vrachionas anticline) and a foreland basin (Kalamaki thrust foreland basin). In Kefalonia Island, the space from FKT was limited and the tectonic inversion formed anticline geometries (Aenos Mountain), nappes (within the Aenos Mountain) and small foreland basins (Argostoli gulf), all within the margins (APM). In Lefkas Island, the lack of space, very close to KFT, lead to the movement of the Ionian basin over the margins, attempting to overthrust the Apulian platform. Because the obstacle between basin and platform was very large, the moving part of Ionian Basin strongly deformed producing nappes and anticlines in the external part of the Ionian basin, and a very narrow foreland basin (Ionian Thrust foreland basin).
Keywords: 
Subject: Environmental and Earth Sciences  -   Environmental Science

1. Introduction

The term "inversion" refers to areas whose evolution has been influenced by reversal from subsidence to uplift due to contraction and subsequent reactivation of previously extensional faults and basins. Plenty of sedimentary basins formed in the continental crust, before, during, or after the oceanic spreading, have been influenced by inversion tectonics such as basins along the North-East Atlantic margins of Norway and Britain, and has many different interpretations [1,2,3,4,5]. These basins formed as a response to either local stress induced by shearing [5], or far-field stress in relation to Alpine compression [1,6], oceanic ridge-push [7], or oceanic transform motion [8].
Inversion tectonics also emerges to a large extent in continental rifts, and areas of inversion in the reference Cenozoic East African rift system are reported to the Afar [9,10], and Rukwa sectors [11,12], as well as to the Turkana area [13]. The several kinematic models so far proposed for inverted basins imply disturbances of the stress field in relation with transform fault in the Afar rift [10], plate-scale mechanisms in the Turkana rift [13], and permutation and/or rotation of stress axes in the Rukwa rift [14].
For several decades, the Mesozoic-Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the Ionian basin was in a thorough debate, particularly regarding the nature of deformations and the problem of correlating structural events with the Apulian platform margins, located west of the Ionian basin. Lefkas, Kefalonia and Zakynthos Islands, are the keys to this study as both the Ionian thrust and the Kefalonia strike-slip fault outcropped in the Islands. This remote area has been the target of previous expeditions resulting in diverging structural interpretations. The Hellenic FTB dominates the External Hellenides and is mainly controlled by collision and continued convergence of the African and Eurasian plates since the Mesozoic [15,16]. Western Greece was part of the Apulian continental block on the southern passive margin of the Tethys Ocean from the Triassic to Late Cretaceous. During early Jurassic (Pliensbachian), extensional stresses associated with the opening of the Tethys Ocean, resulted in the Ionian Basin's opening [17,18], while further Neogene extension has been observed as well [19]. The most important structural control is contractual deformation, as suggested by the constant occurrence of evaporites throughout the thrust boundary between the Apulian platform margins and the Ionian basin. Evaporites represent the lowest detachment level of individual thrust sheets and form a major decollement level.
The aim of this paper is to present a structural model of the tectonic evolution of the Ionian basin and Apulian platform margins, from Late Jurassic to Pleistocene. Moreover, through this papers will be seen the impact of the Late Jurassic to early Eocene NNW–SSSE extension, followed by middle Eocene to middle Miocene NNW–SSE compression, and finally by middle Miocene to present NNE-SSW extension, on the stratigraphy and basin evolution of the Ionian Basin and the Apulian platform margins. The models are based on fieldwork, previously published data, detailed and validated 3D-modeling, and balanced geologic cross-sections.

2. Geological setting/Materials and Methods

The studied areas of Lefkas, Kefalonia and Zakynthos Islands are suitable areas for the study of regional structural evolution as both Ionian Thrust fault (IT) and Kefalonia strike-slip fault (KSSF) have been outcropped. This remote area has been the target of previous expeditions resulting in diverging structural interpretations.
The Hellenic Fold and Thrust Belt (FTB) dominates the External Hellenides (Figure 1) and is mainly controlled by collision and continued convergence of the African and Eurasian plates since the Mesozoic [15].
Western Greece was part of the Apulian continental block on the southern passive margin of the Tethys Ocean from Triassic to Late Cretaceous. In early Jurassic (Pliensbachian), extensional stresses associated with the opening of the Tethys Ocean, resulted in the Ionian Basin's opening [20]. The most important structural control is contractual deformation, as suggested by the constant occurrence of evaporites throughout the thrust boundary between the Apulian platform margins and the Ionian basin. Evaporites represent the lowest detachment level of individual thrust sheets and form a major decollement level [21].
Ionian thrust is the major tectonic feature throughout Western Greece and Ionian Islands, a crustal-scale thrust fault that pushes the lower stratigraphic Ionian Zone over the Pre-Apulian, and has been active since the early Miocene. The NW margin of the Hellenic FTB, represents a geotectonically complex area of collision, subduction and transform faulting activity [22]. This corresponds to a compressional zone placed upon the boundary between the Adriatic and Aegean microplates and the Eurasian-African plates, which in turn corresponds to a general NNW-SSE convergence between Eurasian-African plates.
Moreover, the activity of different branches of the main Ionian Thrust led to the evolution of smaller, confined sub-basins [23]. The pre-Apulian (or Paxoi) zone is the continuation of the Apulian Platform and its transition to the Ionian Basin through some edge-slope facies. It is exposed in several Ionian Islands, mainly in the southwestern margins of the Hellenic FTB (e.g. Kefalonia, Zakynthos) and south of Corfu (Paxoi Islands). This transitional zone is absent in NW part (Corfu Island), suggesting that the Ionian units are directly over -thrusting South Apulia basin [24] (Figure 2).
Strike-slip faults have also controlled the regional tectonic setting and smaller scale strike-slip faults have dissected the Ionian Thrust [25] (Figure 2). Further, the Kefalonia strike-slip fault to the south bisects the Western Greece in an ocean-continent subduction and a continent-continent collision regime, and the Borsh-Khardhiqit strike-slip to the north of Corfu control the evolution of the broad region.
Observed uplift in the southern parts of the island suggests that the southern part of the Ionian Thrust in Corfu is still active. Furthermore, in the hangingwall of the southern section of the thrust, evaporites are covered by Middle to Upper Miocene deposits, suggesting tectonic activity towards the Miocene-Pliocene boundary (Figure 2).
Based on seismic data [26] suggested that normal faults, that influenced Mesozoic deposits, reactivated as thrust faults, during Eocene to Miocene, and further reactivated as normal faults during Plio-Quaternary. In addition, it is recommended that Mesozoic normal and transfer faults were re-activated during the compressional stage as thrust or back-thrusts and strike-slip faults, respectively [20,27] (Figure 3).
Deformation due to collision, based on seismic lines across the Ionian Islands, showed the different structures close and far from Kefalonia strike slip fault [21,22,28]
Preprints 109085 g003
Figure 3. Εvolutionary stages of development from rifting stage to present, applied to Paxoi/Anti-Paxoi Islands [29].
Figure 3. Εvolutionary stages of development from rifting stage to present, applied to Paxoi/Anti-Paxoi Islands [29].
Preprints 109085 g003

3. Results

The A-A’ and D-D’ sections (Figure 2) suggest that when the area influenced by the Ionian Thrust (IT) is situated remotely from the Kefalonia strike-slip fault (KSSF) then the deformation is the same. As the IT affected the margins of the Apulian platform, a high angle anticline was formed in both cases (Paxoi Anticline – PA), with up to 200 m altitude, and Vrachionas Anticline (VA), with up to 550 m altitude, in Zakynthos Island). In Paxoi (Figure 2 A-A’), the KTF is not present and therefore sufficient space is available, a conventional foreland basin was formed, below sea-level. In Zakynthos Island (Figure 2 D-D’), the Ionian fault pushes the margins of the Apulian platform towards the KTF. In this case, the space was limited resulting to margin uplift, and producing the VA. The Ionian thrust gradually evolved into the Kalamaki Back Thrust (KBT).
In addition, when the deformation is at close proximity to the KTF (Figure 2 cross sections B-B’ and C-C’) then the results differ.
In the case where IT is very close to the KTF (Figure 2 B-B’) and limited preserved space exists, only the pre-existing deposits of the Ionian basin were deformed, producing numerous synclines and anticlines, with highest altitudes up to 1150 m. Additionally, the restricted or protected from the KTF margins of the Apulian platform were deformed generating altitudes up to 750 m, between KTF and IT.
In Kefalonia Island (Figure 2 C-C’), the Apulian margins present the most interesting structures, because they were deformed from the compression of the IT producing several small foreland basins. The Paliki Peninsula (PP) (up to 450m altitude) is at close proximity to the KTF and exhibits slumped blocks to opposite direction (eastward directed) over younger deposits. This so most likely because to limited space available Aenos Mountain (AM) with up to 1650 m altitude (the highest in Ionian Islands) was formed as a result of the westwards movement of the IT. Although space from AM to PP peninsula is available, the strong uplifted block of AM could be related to the high angle of the pre-existing normal fault and its great displacement, as well as the coexistence of another thrust fault in Argostoli Gulf (AG). This suggests that AM could represent the wedge top of the Argostoli thrust.

4. Discussion

The boundaries-margins between the stable Apulian Platform and the Ionian Basin display changes in tectonic regime from extensional to compressional regime, with showed characteristic structures [2,3,26] (Figure 4). During Eocene, the pre-existing normal faults reactivated as thrust faults and the transfer faults as strike-slip faults producing different structures. of the type of tectonic structures generated by the inversion tectonics depend of both the existing displacement of the marginal normal faults and the proximity of the IT to the KTF.
Parameters, such as, the pre-existing displacement of normal faults, the frequency of normal faults and the proximity to transfer faults that could be reactivated as strike-slip faults are important in the study of inversion tectonic structures.

5. Conclusions

Apulian platform margins represents the transition margins from Apulian Platform to Ionian Basin and was formed because of extensional tectonic activity associated with normal faults during the Mesozoic. The aerial differences in the displacement of the marginal faults and the influenced area from north to south generated areas that differ in size and bathymetry. During Eocene, the normal faults reactivated as thrust faults and the produced deformation was influenced by the existing displacement and the presence of KTF.
In case of limited space between KTF and margins, the Ionian basin deposits were deformed, whereas in cases of space availability, the reactivation of marginal normal faults generated small foreland basins with often back-thrusts.

Author Contributions

For research articles with several authors, a short paragraph specifying their individual contributions must be provided. The following statements should be used “Conceptualization, A.Z. and N.B.; methodology, N.B.; software, N.B.; validation, A.Z.; formal analysis, A.Z.; N.B.; investigation, A.Z. N.B. E.Z. AG.M.; data curation, A.Z.; writing—original draft preparation, A.Z. N.B.; E.Z.; AG.M.; writing—review and editing, A.Z. N.B.; E.Z.; AG.M; visualization, A.Z.; supervision, A.Z.; project administration, A.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.” Please turn to the CRediT taxonomy for the term explanation. Authorship must be limited to those who have contributed substantially to the work reported.

Data Availability Statement

We encourage all authors of articles published in MDPI journals to share their research data. In this section, please provide details regarding where data supporting reported results can be found, including links to publicly archived datasets analyzed or generated during the study. Where no new data were created, or where data is unavailable due to privacy or ethical restrictions, a statement is still required. Suggested Data Availability Statements are available in section “MDPI Research Data Policies” at https://www.mdpi.com/ethics.

References

  1. Ziegler, PA. Evolution of the Arctic-North Atlantic and the Western Tethys. AAPG Mem. 1988, 43, 198. [Google Scholar]
  2. Basilone, L. Seismogenic rotational slumps and translational glides in pelagic deep-water carbonates. Upper Tithonian-Berriasian of Southern Tethyan margin (W Sicily, Italy). Sedimentary Geology 2017, 356, 1–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Basilone, L.; Sulli, A. Basin analysis in the Southern Tethyan margin: Facies sequences, stratal pattern and subsidence history highlight extension to inversion processes in the Cretaceous Panormide carbonate platform (NW Sicily). Sedimentary Geology 2018, 363, 235–251. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Cooper, M.A.; Warren, M.J. Inverted fault systems and inversion tectonic settings. In Regional Geology and Tectonics, Principles of Geologic Analysis, 2nd ed.; Scarselli, N., Adam, J., Chiarella, D., Roberts, D.G., Bally, A.W., Eds.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2020; Volume 1, pp. 169–204. [Google Scholar]
  5. Brekke, H.; Riis, F. Tectonics and basin evolution of the Norwegian shelf between 62°N and 72oN. Norsk Geologisk Tidsskrift 1987, 67, 295–322. [Google Scholar]
  6. Doré, A.G.; Lundin, E.R.; Jensen, L.N.; Birkeland, Ø.; Eliassen, P.E.; Fichler, C. Principal tectonic events in the evolution of the northwest European Atlantic margin. Petroleum Geology of Northwest Europe: Proceedings of the 5th Conference, 1997; 41–61. [Google Scholar]
  7. Price, S.; Brodie, J.; Whitham, A.; Kent, R.A.Y. Mid-Tertiary rifting and magmatism in the Traill Ø region, East Greenland. Journal of the Geological Society 1997, 154, 419–434. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Dore, A.G.; Lundin, E.R. Cenozoic compressional structures on the NE Atlantic margin; nature, origin and potential significance for hydrocarbon exploration. Petroleum Geoscience 1996, 2, 299–311. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Arthaud, F.; Choukroune, P.; Robineaue, B. 1980. Evolution structurale de la zone transformante d'Arta (République de Djibouti). Bull. Soc. Geol. Fr 1980, 22, 909–915. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Gaulier, J.M.; Huchon, P. Tectonic evolution of Afar triple junction. Bull. Soc. Geol. France 1991, 162, 451–464. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Ring, U. The influence of preexisting structure on the evolution of the Cenozoic Malawi rift (East African rift system). Tectonics 1994, 13, 313–326. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Morley, C.K.; Cunningham, S.M.; Harper, R.M.; Wescott, W.A. Geology and geophysics of the Rukwa Rift, East Africa. Tectonics 1992, 11, 69–81. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Morley, C.K.; Wescott, W.A.; Harper, R.M.; Wigger, S.T.; Day, R.A.; Karanja, F.M. Geology and Geophysics of the Western Turkana Basins, Kenya. In Geoscience of Rift Systems--Evolution of East Africa, 2nd ed.; Morley, C.K. Ed.; AAPG Studies in Geology, 1999; 44, pp. 19–54.
  14. Ring, U.; Betzler, C.; DELVAUX, D. Normal vs. strike-slip faulting during rift development in East Africa: the Malawi rift. Geology 1992, 20, 1015–1018. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Zelilidis, A.; Piper, DJW. ; Vakalas, J.; Avramidis, P.; Getsos, K. Oil and gas plays in Albania: do equivalent plays exist in Greece? Journal of Petroleum Geology 2003, 26, 29–48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Karakitsios, V.; Rigakis, N. Evolution and Petroleum Potential of Western Greece. Journal of Petroleum Geology 2007, 30, 197–218. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Bernoulli, D.; Renz, O. Jurassic carbonate facies and new ammonite faunas from western Greece: Eclog. Eclogae Geologicae Helvetiae 1970, 63, 573–607. [Google Scholar]
  18. Karakitsios, V. Ouverture et Inversion Tectonique du Basin Ionien (Epire, Grèce). Ann. Géol. Pays Héllen 1992, 35, 185–318. [Google Scholar]
  19. van Hinsbergen, D.J.J.; van der Meer, D.G.; Zachariasse, W.J.; Meulenkamp, J.E. Deformation of western Greece during Neogene clockwise rotation and collision with Apulia. International Journal of Earth Sciences 2005, 95, 463–490. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Bourli, N.; Pantopoulos, G.; Maravelis, A.G.; Zoumpoulis, E.; Iliopoulos, G.; Pomoni-Papaioannou, F.; Kostopoulou, S.; Zelilidis, A. Late Cretaceous to early Eocene geological history of the eastern Ionian Basin, southwestern Greece: a sedimentological approach. Cretaceous Journal 2019, 98, 47–71. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Zelilidis, A.; Maravelis, AG.; Tserolas, P.; Konstantopoulos, P.A. An overview of the Petroleum systems in the Ionian zone, onshore NW Greece and Albania. Journal of Petroleum Geology 2015, 38, 331–348. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Maravelis, A.; Makrodimitras, G.; Zelilidis, A. Hydrocarbon prospectivity in the Apulian platform and Ionian zone, in relation to strike-slip fault zones, foreland and back-thrust basins of Ionian thrust, in Greece. Oil and Gas European Magazine 2012, 38, 64–89. [Google Scholar]
  23. Tserolas, P.; Maravelis, A.; Pasadakis, N.; Zelilidis, A. Organic geochemical features of the Upper Miocene successions of Lefkas and Cephalonia islands, Ionian Sea, Greece: An integrated geochemical and statistical approach. Arabian Journal of Geosciences 2018, 11, 105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Del Ben, A.; Mocnika, A.; Volpib, V.; Karvelis, P. Old domains in the South Adria plate and their relationship with the West Hellenic front. J. Geodyn. 2015, 89, 15–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Avramidis, P.; Zelilidis, A. The nature of deep-marine sedimentation and palaeocurrent trends as an evidence of Pindos foreland basin fill conditions. Episodes 2001, 24, 252–256. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Kokinou, Ε.; Kamberis, Ε.; Vafidis, A.; Monopolis, D.; Ananiadis, G.; Zelilidis, A. Deep seismic reflection data from off-shore western Greece: a new crustal model for the Ionian Sea. Journal of Petroleum Geology 2005, 28, 81–98. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Zelilidis, A.; Papatheodorou, G.; Maravelis, A.; Christodoulou, D.; Tserolas, P.; Fakiris, E.; Dimas, X.; Georgiou, N.; Ferentinos, G. Interplay of thrust, back-thrust, strike-slip and salt tectonics in a Fold and Thrust Belt system: an example from Zakynthos Island, Greece. Intr.J.Earth Sciences 2016, 105, 2111–2132. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Karakitsios, V. Western Greece and Ionian Sea petroleum systems. AAPG 2013, 97, 1567–1594. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Bourli, N.; Iliopoulos, G.; Zelilidis, A. Reassessing Depositional Conditions of the Pre-Apulian Zone Based on Synsedimentary Deformation Structures during Upper Paleocene to Lower Miocene Carbonate Sedimentation, from Paxoi and Anti-Paxoi Islands, Northwestern End of Greece. Minerals 2022, 12, 201. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Preprints 109085 g001
Figure 1. Geological map of the studied area with the four studied cross-sections [20].
Figure 1. Geological map of the studied area with the four studied cross-sections [20].
Preprints 109085 g001
Preprints 109085 g002
Figure 2. Four cross-sections depict the major structures based on google earth relief. For the abbreviations see the text and for the locations see Figure 1.
Figure 2. Four cross-sections depict the major structures based on google earth relief. For the abbreviations see the text and for the locations see Figure 1.
Preprints 109085 g002
Preprints 109085 g004
Figure 4. The block diagram illustrates how the tectonic inversion influenced the Apulian Platform Margins producing small restricted foreland basins.
Figure 4. The block diagram illustrates how the tectonic inversion influenced the Apulian Platform Margins producing small restricted foreland basins.
Preprints 109085 g004
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.
Copyright: This open access article is published under a Creative Commons CC BY 4.0 license, which permit the free download, distribution, and reuse, provided that the author and preprint are cited in any reuse.
3-D Body-Wave Velocity Structure of the Southern Aegean, Greece

Andreas Karakonstantis

et al.

,

2023

The MW = 5.6 Kanallaki Earthquake of March 21, 2020 in West Epirus, Greece: Reverse Fault Model From Insar Data and Seismotectonic Implications for Apulia-Eurasia Collision

Sotiris Valkaniotis

et al.

,

2020

The Lambousa (Cyprus) Fish Tank in a Quasi-Stable Coastal Area of the Eastern Mediterranean. A Notable Marker for Testing GIA Models

Fabrizio Antonioli

et al.

,

2023

Prerpints.org logo

Preprints.org is a free preprint server supported by MDPI in Basel, Switzerland.

facebook logotwitter logolinkedin logo
MDPI Initiatives
Important Links
Subscribe

Disclaimer

Terms of Use

Privacy Policy

© 2024 MDPI (Basel, Switzerland) unless otherwise stated