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01 July 2024
Posted:
02 July 2024
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ACPAs | Anticitrullinated Protein Antibodies |
α-synuclein | Alpha-synuclein |
ALS | Agglutinin-like sequence |
AD | Alzheimer’s Disease |
BBB | Blood-Brain Barrier |
CaF2 | Calcium Fluoride |
CD | Crohn’s Disease |
CH3SH | Methyl mercaptan |
CH3SSCH3 | Dimethyl sulfide |
CPC | Cetylpyridinium chloride |
CVD | Cardiovascular Diseases |
EPS | Extracellular polymers |
F- | Fluoride ions |
FAP | Fluorapatite |
GPI | Glycosylphosphatidylinositol |
HA | Hydroxyapatite |
HF | Hydrogen Fluoride |
HWP1 | Hyphal wall protein |
HSPs | Heat Shock Proteins |
IBD | Inflammatory Bowel Disease |
IL | Interleukin |
LDH | Lactate Dehydrogenase |
LPS | Lipopolysaccharides |
LtxA | Leukotoxin A |
MMP9 | Matrix Metalloproteinase 9 |
nAChRs | Nicotine Acetylcholine Receptors |
NETs | Neutrophil Extracellular Traps |
NF-κB | Nuclear Factor Kappa-B |
NGS | Next-Generation Sequencing |
OH- | Hydroxyl ions |
PD | Parkinson’s Disease |
PPAD | Porphyromonas gingivalis peptidylarginine deiminase |
RA | Rheumatoid Arthritis |
RS. | Thiol radicals |
RSH | Thiol compounds |
RSSR | Disulfides |
RT-PCR | quantitative Real-Time PCR |
SAPs | Secreted Aspartyl Proteinases |
SLE | Systemic Lupus Erythematosus |
SspB | Surface protein SspB |
Th | T helper |
VSCs | Volatile Sulfur Compounds |
Microbial Component | Predominant Phyla/Genera | Other Notable Genera |
---|---|---|
Bacteria | Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Chlamydia, Euryarchaeota, Fusobacteria, Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, Spirochaetes, Tenericutes |
- Gram-positive cocci: Abiotrophia, Peptostreptococcus, Streptococcus, Stomatococcus - Gram-positive rods: Actinomyces, Bifidobacterium, Corynebacterium, Eubacterium, Lactobacillus, Propionibacterium, Pseudoramibacter, Rothia - Gram-negative cocci: Moraxella, Neisseria, Veillonella - Gram-negative rods: Campylobacter, Capnocytophaga, Desulfobacter, Desulfovibrio, Eikenella, Fusobacterium, Hemophilus, Leptotrichia, Prevotella, Selemonas, Simonsiella, Treponema, Wolinella |
Fungi | Candida | Cladosporium, Aureobasidium, Saccharomycetales, Aspergillus, Fusarium, Cryptococcus |
Archaea | Euryarchaeota | - |
Disease | Commensals | Pathogens | Directionality | Mechanisms | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Oral Diseases | |||||
Dental Caries |
Lactobacillus spp., Veillonella, Propionibacterium, Bifidobacterium, Corynebacterium, Capnocytophaga |
S. mutans | ↑ | Acidogenic bacteria produce acidic by-products, leading to demineralization and cavitation; Dysbiosis-driven disorder | [64,65,66,71,72,73,74,75,76,77] |
Gingivitis | Streptococcus sp., Actinomyces sp., Veillonella sp. |
P. gingivalis, T. denticola, A. actinomycetemcomitans, Fusobacterium sp., P. intermedia |
↑ | Caused by the accumulation of microbial plaque on the tooth surface, which penetrates the gingival tissue and leads to inflammation. | [79] |
Periodontitis | Prevotella melaninogenica |
P. gingivalis, T. denticola, T. forsythia, F. nucleatum ss. polymorphum, P. intermedia |
↑ | Pathogenic bacteria induce inflammation, oxidative stress, immune activation, and tissue damage; Potential systemic implications | [11,83,84,85] |
Halitosis |
Prevotella melaninogenica, Veillonella spp. Peptostreptococcus Actinomyces spp. Eubacterium, Megasphaera, Selenomonas, Leptotrichia, Fusobacterium, Eikenella corrodens |
Treponema denticola, Porphyromonas gingivalis, Porphyromonas endodontalis, Tannerella forsythensis, Bacteroides loescheii, Centipeda periodontii |
↑ | Anaerobic bacteria produce VSCs causing malodor; Bacterial degradation of sulfur-containing amino acids | [92,93,94,95] |
Taste impairment | Lactobacilli | - | ↑ | High levels of acid produced by the bacteria impair taste, affecting taste perception. | [99] |
Burning mouth syndrome (BMS) |
Streptococcus, Rothia, Bergeyella, Granulicatella |
- | ↑ | Alteration in bacterial strains may contribute to the development of BMS influencing pathways involved in inflammation, immune responses, and sensory perception | [108] |
Oral Thrush |
Candida parapsilosis, Candida krusei, Candida stellatoidea, Candida tropicalis |
Candida albicans, Candida glabrata, Candida dubliniensis, Candida guilliermondii |
↑ | Overgrowth of Candida species due to factors like poor oral hygiene, weakened immune system, or underlying medical conditions; Adhesion to host surfaces and tissue invasion through various mechanisms; Hyphal formation, biofilm production, and secretion of enzymes that degrade host immune factors | [109,110,111,112,113,114,115,116,117,118,119,120,121,122,123,124,125,126,127,128] |
Systemic diseases | |||||
IBD | - |
P. gingivalis, F. nucleatum |
↑ | Oral-resident bacteria may infiltrate the gut microbiome; Gut dysbiosis due to altered gut epithelial permeability | [59,132,134] |
Atherosclerosis |
Prevotella nigrescens, Parvimonas micra, |
S. mutans, P. gingivalis, P. endodontalis, T. denticola, T. forsythia, Prevotella intermedia, Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans, Eubacterium timidum, Eubacterium brachy, Eubacterium saphenum, Campylobacter rectus, |
↑ | Oral dysbiosis triggers local inflammation, systemic inflammatory responses, oxidative stress, immune activation, platelet aggregation | [135,136,137,138,145,146,147] |
Diabetes | Capnocytophaga, |
P. gingivalis, T. forsythia |
↑ | Hyperglycemia and oxidative stress create a conducive environment for microbial dysbiosis; Elevated inflammatory reactions |
[151,152,153,154,155,156] |
Obesity |
Proteobacteria, Chloroflexi, Firmicutes |
- | ↑ | Potential migration of oral bacteria to the gut; Alterations in bacterial populations impact metabolic homeostasis | [162,163,164,165,166] |
AD | - |
P. gingivalis, T. forsythia, T. denticola, |
↑ | Oral microbiota’s production of inflammatory agents potentially contributes to neuroinflammation and AD progression | [168,169,170,171,173,176] |
PD | - | P. gingivalis | ↑ | P. gingivalis infection is correlated with PD, with studies demonstrating the presence of gingipain R1 (RgpA) in the bloodstream, indicating systemic dissemination. P. gingivalis may contribute to PD pathogenesis by inducing systemic inflammation, promoting hypercoagulability, and exacerbating neurodegeneration. | [180,183,184] |
RA |
Prevotella, Veillonella, Lactobacillus salivarius |
P. gingivalis, A. actinomycetemcomitans, |
↑ | P. gingivalis implicated in RA onset via citrullination and ACPA production; Dysbiosis of oral microbiota exacerbates joint inflammation. | [186,188,189,190] |
SLE |
Veillonella, Streptococcus, Prevotella |
T. forsythia, T. denticola |
↑ | Oral microbial dysbiosis and periodontitis may exacerbate SLE via immune activation; Potential contribution to autoimmune responses | [197,198,199,200,201,202] |
Cancer |
S. oralis, S. mitis, S. sanguinis, Lactobacillus fermentum, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Bifidobacterium adolescentis |
P. gingivalis, F. nucleatum, |
↑ | Specific bacteria infiltrate cells, initiate tumor development, produce cancer-promoting substances like lipopolysaccharide | [203,204] |
Component | Role/Mechanism | Formulation | References |
---|---|---|---|
Probiotics | Support balance of oral microbiota, produce specialized metabolites for maintaining microbiota equilibrium, promote healthy immunity |
Probiotic supplements containing strains such as Streptococcus salivarius M18, Streptococcus salivarius K12, Lactobacillus plantarum, Bifidobacterium lactis, Lactobacillus reuteri, Lactobacillus salivarius, help maintain oral microbiota balance, combat bad breath and gum inflammation, and enhance immune responses. | [205] |
Xylitol | Rebalances mouth acidity, reduces S. mutans counts, and disrupts S. mutans energy production. | Xylitol mints and gums, contains xylitol, natural peppermint flavour, magnesium stearate, natural menthol |
[225,226] |
Chlorine Dioxide Mouth Rinse | Neutralizes volatile sulfur compounds (VSCs), kills odour-producing bacteria, reduces plaque and F. nucleatum counts | Stabilized chlorine dioxide (ClO2), trisodium phosphate, citric acid; typically found in commercially available mouth rinses | [228] |
Thymol Mouth Rinse | Antifungal properties, disrupts C. albicans hyphae production and adhesion to epithelial cells | Thymol, eucalyptol, menthol, methyl salicylate dissolved in ethanol (27%); available in various commercial mouthwash formulations | [230] |
Fluoride Toothpaste | Strengthens enamel, prevents cavities, promotes oral hygiene | Sodium fluoride, hydrated silica, cellulose gum, glycerin, available in various brands and formulations of toothpaste | [233] |
Hydroxyapatite Toothpaste | Replenishes lost minerals in enamel, restores enamel structure, alternative to fluoride-based products | Hydroxyapatite particles, available in various brands and formulations of toothpaste | [236] |
Cetylpyridinium Chloride (CPC) | Antimicrobial properties, disrupts bacterial membranes and cellular functions, effective against plaque-forming bacteria | Found in various oral care formulations such as mouthwashes and toothpaste | [237] |
Clove Oil | Antibacterial and antifungal effects, inhibits multi-resistant Staphylococcus species growth, reduces C. albicans ergosterol levels | Clove oil containing eugenol, eugenyl acetate, carvacrol, available in various oral care products such as mouth rinses and gels | [238] |
Oil Pulling | Generates antioxidants to damage microbial cell walls, removes bacteria by attracting them to oil, hinders bacterial co-aggregation and plaque formation | Coconut, sesame, or sunflower oil, typically used as a standalone oral hygiene technique | [239] |
Antimicrobial Peptides | Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) such as defensins and cathelicidins disrupt microbial cell membranes through electrostatic interactions, forming pores that lead to ion leakage and cell death, providing natural defense against oral pathogens. | Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) like defensins and cathelicidins are integrated into oral care products to combat oral bacteria, fungi, and viruses. | [218,219] |
Enamel Strengthening Peptides | Enamel strengthening peptides, exemplified by peptide P11-4, mimic the mineral structure of enamel. They facilitate remineralization by attracting calcium ions, promoting the formation of hydroxyapatite essential for enamel regeneration and strengthening. | P11-4: dental gels, pastes, some toothpastes |
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