1. Introduction

1.3. Sustainable Construction Materials

The construction sector has the potential to drive economic and industrial growth by enhancing total factor productivity and embracing environmental considerations. By re-evaluating the construction industry, its various subsectors, and their products (like construction materials), along with project management practices, we can foster green and sustainable total factor productivity growth across all industries (Sertyesilisik, 2023).

Buildings exert a significant environmental footprint, accounting for 30% of the global carbon emissions, with an expected 40% increase in energy consumption in the EU in the future. The European Commission has introduced a unified policy aimed at promoting sustainable buildings and environmentally friendly construction materials. The Construction Product Regulation (CPR) was implemented to guarantee accurate information regarding the performance of construction products (European Regulation 305/2011 Construction Product Regulation) (Construction Products Regulation 305/2011 - cemarking.net, 2011).

The International Energy Agency report for 2021 predicted that the population growth rate would intensify environmental changes (I.E.A. Empowering Cities for a Net Zero Future IEA, Paris 2021) (“Empowering Cities for a Net Zero Future,” 2021). The built environment contributes significantly to carbon emissions, making up 50% of global emissions. This is because the sector uses large amounts of energy and raw materials; this consumption is fuelled by ongoing construction projects meant to meet the demands of an expanding population (U. Environment Emissions Gap Report, UNEP—UN Environment Program 2020) (Emissions Gap Report 2020, 2020).

Furthermore, the environmental effects of constructed buildings do not change throughout their lifetime. The building sector needs to move toward a circular economy and efficiently prioritize resources to address these urgent problems (Hossain et al., 2020).

This change will make it easier to create sustainable products. The building industry has the potential to decrease its dependence on non-renewable resources, curtail waste production, and promote sustainable material management over a building's lifecycle (Chan et al., 2022).

Among many other businesses, the construction sector provides durable products with complex supply chains and is vital to economically developing nations (Pomponi et al., 2016).

The sustainable building material lifecycle is as follows.

2. Materials and Methods

2.3. Sustainable Building Construction in UAE

The Emirate of Dubai has re-evaluated the conventional understanding of sustainability as outlined by the Brundtland Commission in 1987. In this reassessment, Dubai reconsiders the widely accepted principle of sustainability known as the "Triple Bottom Line." This framework extends beyond mere economic considerations and encompasses three key dimensions: social, environmental, and economic. Represented as interlocking circles, the Triple Bottom Line approach aims to harmonize the opportunities and challenges presented by each dimension, thereby ensuring positive outcomes across the board.

Buildings exert a significant environmental footprint, spanning from the production of construction materials to the various phases of building construction, operation, maintenance, and eventual disposal. Achieving sustainability in the built environment necessitates prioritizing key factors such as energy and water conservation, emission reduction, pollution mitigation, and the efficient utilization of natural resources. Throughout a building's lifespan, numerous economic considerations are tied to both its construction and operational phases. Cost–benefit analyses allow for an examination of efficiency across the entire lifecycle of a building project. The ability to quantify costs aids in optimizing the benefits derived from the development of sustainable projects.

Striking a balance between cost efficiency and sustainable benefits involves focusing on the incorporation of environmentally friendly materials throughout the lifecycle of construction projects. Buildings ultimately designed for human occupancy place a significant emphasis on promoting health, well-being, and overall liveability. Addressing these factors within a sustainable strategy is crucial for advancing the goal of enhancing the quality of life for both current and future generations. This is accomplished through adopting measures like using low-VOC paints and coatings, maintaining adequate ventilation, and banning the use of asbestos-containing materials (A PRACTICE GUIDE FOR BUILDING A SUSTAINABLE DUBAI 100, 2020).

Sustainability forms the foundation upon which regulations are constructed, aiming for ongoing enhancement in building development throughout the buildings’ entire lifecycles, guided by the integrated principles of environmental, social, and economic considerations. The chart below presents studies from the Scopus database on sustainable building construction during the period of 2014 to 2024 in the UAE.

2.4. Sustainable Construction Materials’ Attributes

The goal is to achieve a balanced triple bottom line of environmental, social, and economic value by focusing on the key specifications of sustainable construction materials with demonstrated properties.

2.4.1. Recycled Content

Enhanced production results in an escalation in waste output, which presents environmental risks due to toxic exposure. An economically viable remedy to this problem involves repurposing waste materials for crafting new products, thereby reducing the burden on the country's landfills. By recycling waste from construction endeavours, natural resources and energy are preserved, while solid waste build-up, air and water pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions are reduced. In acknowledgment of the benefits of utilizing waste and recycled materials, the construction sector is increasingly adopting these approaches.

Several research efforts have delved into the feasibility of integrating permissible waste, recycled, and reusable materials. The adoption of a wide array of materials such as swine manure, animal fat, silica fume, roofing shingles, empty palm fruit bunches, citrus peels, cement kiln dust, fly ash, foundry sand, slag, glass, plastic, carpet, tire scraps, asphalt pavement, and concrete aggregates in construction is gaining momentum, fuelled by the scarcity and rising expenses associated with raw materials.

Crucial considerations in this context include gaining deeper insights into contemporary practices and the broad integration of waste and recycled materials, comprehending the current strengths and weaknesses in implementation, and formulating effective policies regarding the utilization of these materials (Polyportis et al., 2022).

2.4.2. Regional Materials

The procurement of building materials often entails considerable resource consumption and carbon emissions associated with transportation to project sites. The use of locally sourced materials can significantly alleviate these burdens by minimizing transportation distances and resource consumption. Furthermore, opting for regionally produced materials benefits the local economy by stimulating production and fostering community opportunities while also streamlining the supply chain, resulting in faster delivery times and enhanced economic viability within the project procurement domain. This approach also aligns with sustainable construction practices, adding value to the overall project.

In the UAE, materials and essential construction components sourced from within the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries are categorized as regional materials, recognizing economic collaboration among the member states of the GCC (A PRACTICE GUIDE FOR BUILDING A SUSTAINABLE DUBAI 100, 2020).

2.4.3. Solar Reflective Index (SRI)

The Solar Reflective Index (SRI) quantifies a material's capacity to reflect solar radiation and its emissivity. Materials with higher SRI values reflect less solar heat, while those with lower SRI values, often darker in colour, absorb a greater portion of solar light. Additionally, a material's specific heat capacity, governing its ability to retain and release heat, influences its energy absorption. The use of materials with higher SRI values contributes to reduced cooling demands. All solid external roofing surfaces must adhere to specified SRI standards, covering a minimum of 75% of the roof area. For steeply sloped roofs (with a slope exceeding 1:6), the minimum required SRI is 29, whereas for flat and low-sloped roofs, it stands at 78. Table 1 below lists some typical roofing materials' indicative SRI values.

2.4.4. Light Reflectance Value (LRV)

The energy absorbed and retained by a building is influenced by the colour of its surfaces. Light colours reflect a significant portion of solar energy, whereas dark colours absorb more solar energy, leading to heating of the object and its surroundings. The Light Reflectance Value (LRV) of surface finishing materials is typically indicated in material data sheets and can be confirmed through third-party laboratory testing. External walls are required to have a minimum LRV of 45%. The LRV measures the total amount of usable and visible light reflected by a surface on a scale from 0% to 100%. Absolute black is considered to have an LRV of 0%, while perfectly reflective white has an LRV of 100% (British Standards Institute 2010. BS 8493:2008 A1: Light reflective value LRV of a surface).

2.4.5. Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs): Low-Emitting Materials, Paints, and Coatings

Many building materials contain volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which pose risks to indoor air quality and outdoor pollution levels. Prolonged exposure to high VOC concentrations has been linked to chronic health conditions such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and cancer. Short-term exposure to VOCs can cause immediate reactions like irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat. The negative impacts of using products with high VOC levels affect not only building occupants but also those involved in their installation or application during construction. Choosing low-VOC materials is essential for improving indoor air quality (A practice guide for building a sustainable Dubai 100, 2021).

Table 2 below lists some typical building materials' indicative VOC values.

2.4.6. Low-Emitting Materials: Adhesives and Sealants

All adhesives, primers, and sealants utilized in building construction contain certain amounts of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which can impact indoor air quality and the health of occupants. The following table provides indicative VOC values for such building materials.

Table 3. Maximum VOC content limit values for adhesives and sealants.

Table 3. Maximum VOC content limit values for adhesives and sealants.

Max. VOC Limit	g/l
Architectural Application
Indoor carpet adhesive	50
Carpet pad adhesive	50
Wood floor adhesive	100
Rubber floor adhesive	60
Subfloor adhesive	50
Ceramic tile adhesive	65

(Dubai municipality 2015 standard DMS 20:2015, specs for paints and varnishes, Dubai central laboratory 2018, Specs rules for FA certification of low emitting materials as per Al Safat Dubai green building system.).

2.4.7. Thermal Transmittance U-Value

Thermal transmittance refers to the rate at which heat moves through the various components of a building envelope, such as the material assembly, roof, and external walls. It is measured as the heat flow rate in watts (W) per square meter for a temperature difference of 1 Kelvin across the structure. Typically, materials with lower U-values exhibit superior insulation properties.

The materials and layers comprising the building envelope offer resistance to heat flow and significantly affect the thermal performance of the building. The U-values of building envelope components like the walls, roof, floor, and glazing, along with the shading coefficient and solar heat gain coefficient, are key determinants of a building's overall thermal performance.

The U-value is calculated by summing the reciprocals of the R-values of the individual material layers. Building materials with higher R-values (thermal resistance) contribute to lower U-values, indicating better thermal insulation characteristics for the building.

Utilizing thermal cement blocks for external walls, employing glass with an improved shading coefficient (SC) and solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC) for external windows and skylights, and incorporating appropriate insulation layers in the roof can enhance a building's insulation properties (Dubai municipality 2003, DM administrative resolution 66 of 2003).

2.4.8. Water-Efficient Fittings

Preserving natural resources such as water is crucial for both current and future sustainability needs. Excessive potable water consumption in buildings not only depletes this vital resource but also involves a significant energy demand for treatment and transportation.

Achieving water efficiency in buildings involves installing water-efficient fixtures that adhere to designated flow and flush rates. Low-flow plumbing fixtures, equipped with aerator nozzles that blend air with water to create the perception of a higher flow rate, consume less water than traditional fixtures.

The integration of dual-flush toilets, featuring two distinct levers or buttons linked to separate exit valves, provides users with flexibility and options to optimize flush usage (European committee for standardization 2008, EN 817: Sanitary tapware mechanical valves PN10, general technical specifications), (A PRACTICE GUIDE FOR BUILDING A SUSTAINABLE DUBAI 100, 2020).

2.4.9. Sustainable Concrete

Concrete plays a vital role in construction projects, with increasing industry demands driving the need for greater concrete production. However, the production of cement, a key component of concrete, results in the accumulation of embodied CO2 during raw material extraction, processing, and transportation, making cement one of the primary sources of anthropogenic CO2 emissions globally. This poses serious environmental challenges, including land degradation and pollution. To address the environmental impact associated with concrete production, the Emirate of Dubai has established a sustainable concrete baseline. This framework aims to promote the best practices throughout the lifecycle of concrete in the built environment, balancing sustainability requirements with other performance parameters.

An effective approach to reduce emissions associated with concrete production involves substituting a portion of the cement in concrete mixes with industrial by-products like Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS), fly ash, or silica fume, commonly known as supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs). The integration of SCMs not only improves the environmental impact of concrete but also helps decrease greenhouse gas emissions (A practice guide for building a sustainable Dubai 100,2021).

The Emirate of Dubai released Circular 225 in 2018, specifying sustainable concrete mixes of different grades with supplementary cementitious materials like GGBS, silica fume, and fly ash (Dubai Municipality 2018, circular 225 environmentally friendly concrete mix designs).

2.4.10. Certified/Accredited Timber

The escalating pace of construction projects has heightened the demand for timber and its derivatives, with accompanying recognition that forests serve as the sole source of this invaluable resource. The mismanagement of timber sourced from forests could yield adverse consequences, encompassing human health risks, deforestation, loss of wildlife habitats, soil erosion, and pollution of air and water.

In response, a globally adopted approach involves the implementation of certified forest management systems to safeguard forest ecosystems. Various internationally recognized schemes are emerging to ensure the responsible sourcing of timber and promote sustainable forest management practices. These initiatives prioritize the health and well-being of local populations, endeavour to minimize the use of hazardous chemicals, and aim to mitigate the environmental impact of logging activities by protecting wildlife and biodiversity.

Regulations have been established to stipulate that a minimum of 25% of the volume of timber and timber-related products utilized in construction projects must originate from certified sources. Noteworthy among the internationally recognized schemes are the following:

The Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), which assures that products come from responsibly managed forests;

The Program for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC), which guarantees that non-timber forest products adhere to the highest ecological, social, and ethical standards;

The Sustainable Forestry Initiative (SFI), which encompasses a comprehensive framework of principles, objectives, and performance measures developed by forestry professionals, conservationists, and scientists. The SFI promotes the sustainable growth and harvesting of trees while simultaneously protecting wildlife, plants, soil, and water quality for the long term (A PRACTICE GUIDE FOR BUILDING A SUSTAINABLE DUBAI 100, 2020).

2.4.11. Asbestos-Containing Materials

Asbestos, a naturally occurring mineral silicate fibre renowned for its remarkable fire and heat resistance, finds widespread use in various construction materials like roof insulation, textured paints, coatings, and resilient floor tiles. These materials typically comprise a mixture of individual asbestos fibres and binding agents.

When disturbed or crushed, asbestos-containing materials can release asbestos fibres into the air, increasing airborne asbestos levels and exposing occupants to inherent health hazards. Once inhaled, asbestos fibres do not dissolve or break down in the human body due to their composition. Prolonged exposure to asbestos can lead to serious health risks, including chest and abdominal cancers, as well as lung diseases, often resulting in fatalities. The utilization of asbestos products has been restricted or prohibited in numerous countries, including the UAE, through measures such as Cabinet Resolution No. 39 of 2006 (A PRACTICE GUIDE FOR BUILDING A SUSTAINABLE DUBAI 100, 2020).

2.4.12. Lead- or Heavy-Metal-Containing Materials

Lead and its compounds have historically found applications in a wide range of building products, including paints, ceramics, pipes, and plumbing materials. Among these, lead-based paint has been particularly problematic, significantly contributing to lead poisoning in both children and adults. Exposure to lead can lead to permanent brain damage, impairing mental and physical development in children and causing nerve damage and hypertension in adults.

To address human exposure and the associated health risks posed by these materials, it is crucial to minimize or eliminate the use of paints and materials containing lead and other heavy metals. This proactive approach aims to prevent adverse health effects and protect public health. The maximum allowable limits for these materials in any product are detailed in the table below (Dubai municipality 2015, standard 20:2015, specification for paints and varnishes).

Table 4. Maximum permissible limits for heavy metals.

Table 4. Maximum permissible limits for heavy metals.

Heavy metal	Max. limit allowed(mg/kg)
Lead	100
Cadmium	500
Chromium VI	500
Mercury	100
Arsenic	100

3. Results and Discussion

4. Conclusion

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