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Challenges in Metal Additive Manufacturing: Examining the technical and economic challenges associated with metal additive manufacturing

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31 July 2024

Posted:

09 August 2024

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Abstract
Metal additive manufacturing (AM), commonly referred to as 3D printing with metals, is an innovative technology with significant potential to transform industries such as aerospace, automotive, and healthcare. Despite its promise, the field faces several challenges that impact both its technical feasibility and economic viability. This paper explores the primary technical challenges, including material properties and processing complexities, such as the need for precise control of thermal gradients and the mitigation of defects like porosity and residual stresses. Additionally, it addresses the economic barriers, including high initial equipment costs, the need for specialized knowledge, and the relatively slow build speeds compared to traditional manufacturing methods. By examining these challenges, this paper aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the current state of metal additive manufacturing and suggest potential pathways for overcoming these obstacles to facilitate wider adoption and technological advancement in the field.
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Subject: Chemistry and Materials Science  -   Applied Chemistry

1. Introduction

Metal additive manufacturing (AM) represents a revolutionary approach to manufacturing, leveraging digital designs to create metal components layer by layer. Unlike traditional subtractive manufacturing methods, which often involve cutting away material from a larger block, metal AM enables the direct creation of complex geometries and intricate structures that would be difficult or impossible to achieve otherwise. This capability has garnered significant attention in various industries, particularly those requiring high-performance materials and components, such as aerospace, automotive, and medical devices.
Despite its transformative potential, metal additive manufacturing is not without its challenges. These challenges span both technical and economic domains, influencing the technology’s adoption and widespread implementation. Technical hurdles include issues related to material properties, process control, and part quality. Economic considerations involve the high costs associated with equipment and materials, as well as the economic feasibility of scaling production.
This paper seeks to explore these challenges in depth. In the technical domain, we will examine the complexities of material behavior during the additive manufacturing process, including the formation of defects and the need for precise thermal management. Economically, we will analyze the cost structure of metal AM, evaluating factors such as equipment investment, operational expenses, and the comparative costs with traditional manufacturing methods.
By understanding these challenges, we aim to provide insights into potential solutions and strategies for improving the feasibility and efficiency of metal additive manufacturing, ultimately paving the way for its broader adoption and development in various industries.

2. Historical Background

Metal additive manufacturing (AM) has evolved significantly since its inception, driven by advances in technology and increasing industrial demand. The roots of metal AM can be traced back to the 1980s, a period marked by the emergence of various additive manufacturing technologies.

Early Developments:

1980s: The concept of additive manufacturing began to take shape with the introduction of stereolithography (SLA), a technique developed by Chuck Hull. While SLA primarily used polymers, it laid the groundwork for future developments in AM. The early metal AM processes, such as selective laser sintering (SLS) and direct metal laser sintering (DMLS), emerged around this time, but their applications were limited by technological constraints and material availability.

Advancements in Technology:

1990s: The 1990s saw significant advancements with the development of more sophisticated metal AM technologies, including electron beam melting (EBM) and laser metal deposition (LMD). These technologies enabled the production of more complex metal parts with improved precision and material properties. The advent of these techniques marked a transition from prototyping to functional part manufacturing.

Commercialization and Growth:

2000s: The early 2000s marked a period of commercialization and wider adoption of metal AM technologies. Companies and research institutions began to explore the potential of metal AM for producing end-use parts and components. The development of new metal powders and improved process control further enhanced the capabilities and reliability of metal AM systems.

Recent Developments:

2010s to Present: The past decade has witnessed rapid advancements in metal additive manufacturing. Innovations in materials, such as high-strength alloys and composite materials, have expanded the range of applications. The integration of advanced sensors, data analytics, and machine learning has improved process control and part quality. Additionally, cost reductions in equipment and materials have made metal AM more accessible to a broader range of industries.

Current Landscape:

Today, metal additive manufacturing is a burgeoning field with applications spanning aerospace, automotive, medical, and other high-tech industries. Ongoing research and development efforts continue to address technical challenges and explore new opportunities, positioning metal AM as a key technology for future manufacturing innovations.
This historical perspective provides context for understanding the current state of metal additive manufacturing and highlights the technological evolution that has shaped its capabilities and applications.

3. Technical Challenges

Metal additive manufacturing (AM) has made significant strides, yet several technical challenges remain that affect its efficacy, reliability, and broader adoption. These challenges can be broadly categorized into material-related issues, process control difficulties, and quality assurance concerns.

3.1. Material Properties and Behavior

Powder Characteristics: The quality and consistency of metal powders are crucial for successful metal AM. Issues such as particle size distribution, morphology, and powder flowability can significantly impact the manufacturing process. Variations in powder properties can lead to inconsistent results and affect the mechanical properties of the final part.
Material Performance: Different metals and alloys exhibit varied behavior under additive manufacturing conditions. For instance, some materials may experience phase transformations or alterations in microstructure that can influence their mechanical properties and performance. Ensuring material reliability and achieving desired properties in the final product are ongoing challenges.
Thermal Effects: The thermal cycles involved in metal AM can induce residual stresses and warping in the printed parts. Managing the thermal gradients and cooling rates is essential to minimize defects such as distortion, cracking, and delamination.

3.2. Process Control and Optimization

Process Parameters: Metal AM processes involve numerous parameters, such as laser power, scan speed, and layer thickness. Optimizing these parameters to achieve the desired balance between build speed, part quality, and material properties is complex and often requires extensive experimentation and experience.
Defect Management: Common defects in metal AM include porosity, lack of fusion, and surface roughness. Addressing these defects requires careful control of process conditions and post-processing techniques. Developing reliable methods for defect detection and correction remains a challenge.
Reproducibility: Achieving consistent results across multiple builds is critical for industrial applications. Variability in the AM process, due to factors such as machine calibration and environmental conditions, can affect reproducibility. Ensuring uniformity and reliability in production is essential for quality assurance.

3.3. Quality Assurance and Testing

Non-Destructive Testing: Traditional quality assurance methods may not be fully applicable to metal AM parts due to their complex geometries and internal structures. Non-destructive testing (NDT) methods, such as X-ray computed tomography and ultrasonic testing, are being adapted and refined for metal AM, but challenges remain in their application.
Standardization: The lack of standardized testing methods and quality metrics for metal AM parts makes it difficult to assess and compare the performance of different materials and processes. Developing industry-wide standards and benchmarks is crucial for advancing metal AM technology and ensuring product reliability.

3.4. Post-Processing and Finishing

Surface Finish: Metal AM parts often require post-processing to achieve the desired surface finish and dimensional accuracy. Techniques such as machining, grinding, and polishing are used to improve the appearance and functionality of the parts. However, post-processing adds time and cost to the manufacturing process.
Heat Treatment: Many metal AM parts require heat treatment to relieve residual stresses and enhance mechanical properties. The heat treatment process must be carefully controlled to avoid introducing new defects or altering the material properties.
Addressing these technical challenges is essential for the continued advancement and adoption of metal additive manufacturing. Ongoing research, technological innovations, and collaborative efforts are crucial for overcoming these obstacles and realizing the full potential of metal AM in various industrial applications.

4. Economic Challenges

Metal additive manufacturing (AM) offers transformative potential but also presents several economic challenges that impact its widespread adoption and integration into traditional manufacturing workflows. These challenges encompass the high costs of equipment, materials, and operational processes, as well as issues related to scale and market dynamics.

4.1. High Initial Costs

Equipment Investment: The capital expenditure for metal AM systems is substantial. Advanced machines capable of processing high-performance metals are expensive, often ranging from hundreds of thousands to several million dollars. This high initial investment poses a significant barrier to entry, especially for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs).
Infrastructure and Maintenance: In addition to the cost of the machines themselves, there are additional expenses related to setting up and maintaining the necessary infrastructure. This includes specialized facilities, maintenance contracts, and training for operators, all of which contribute to the overall cost of adopting metal AM technologies.

4.2. Material Costs

Raw Materials: The cost of metal powders used in additive manufacturing is relatively high compared to traditional manufacturing materials. High-performance alloys and customized powders, necessary for specific applications, further drive up costs. The price of raw materials can be a significant portion of the total production cost, especially for low-volume or prototype runs.
Material Waste: While metal AM can reduce material waste compared to subtractive methods, there is still waste generated, particularly during the powder recycling and recovery process. Managing and minimizing material waste is essential for improving cost efficiency.

4.3. Production Efficiency and Speed

Build Time: Metal AM processes generally have slower build times compared to traditional manufacturing methods. This slower production rate can impact the economic viability of metal AM for high-volume manufacturing, where speed and throughput are critical.
Throughput Limitations: The current throughput of metal AM machines may not match the demands of large-scale production runs. This limitation affects the cost-effectiveness of metal AM for mass production and necessitates careful consideration of its role in the manufacturing ecosystem.

4.4. Operational Costs

Energy Consumption: Metal AM processes, especially those involving high-temperature techniques such as electron beam melting (EBM), can be energy-intensive. The energy costs associated with operating and maintaining the equipment add to the overall cost of production.
Labor and Expertise: Skilled labor is required to operate and maintain metal AM systems, and the need for specialized expertise adds to operational costs. The training and expertise required for design optimization, process control, and post-processing can be significant.

4.5. Market Dynamics and Adoption

Economic Feasibility: For metal AM to become economically viable, it must compete with established manufacturing methods such as machining, casting, and forging. The cost benefits of metal AM need to outweigh those of traditional methods, particularly for high-volume production.
Return on Investment (ROI): The high initial costs and slower production times pose challenges for calculating a favorable return on investment. Companies must carefully evaluate the long-term benefits of metal AM, such as design flexibility and reduced lead times, against the high upfront and operational costs.

4.6. Supply Chain and Scalability

Supply Chain Issues: The supply chain for metal powders and other components can impact costs and availability. Disruptions in the supply chain or fluctuations in material prices can affect the overall cost of production and the economic feasibility of metal AM.
Scalability: Scaling up metal AM processes from prototyping to full-scale production can be challenging. Achieving economies of scale, particularly in terms of cost and efficiency, requires overcoming technical and logistical hurdles.
Addressing these economic challenges is crucial for making metal additive manufacturing a viable option for a wider range of applications and industries. Efforts to reduce equipment costs, optimize material use, and improve production efficiency are essential for enhancing the economic attractiveness of metal AM technologies.

5. Case Studies and Examples

Examining real-world applications and implementations of metal additive manufacturing (AM) provides valuable insights into the practical challenges and successes associated with this technology. This section presents case studies and examples from various industries to illustrate both the benefits and obstacles faced when integrating metal AM into production.

5.1. Aerospace Industry

Case Study: GE Aviation’s LEAP Engine Fuel Nozzle
Overview: GE Aviation has utilized metal AM to produce the fuel nozzle for its LEAP jet engine. The nozzle, which was previously manufactured using traditional methods, is now produced using selective laser melting (SLM).
Benefits: The use of metal AM has reduced the number of parts from 18 to just one, significantly simplifying the assembly process and improving the overall efficiency and reliability of the nozzle. The technology has also enabled complex cooling channels that enhance performance and fuel efficiency.
Challenges: Initial costs for developing and qualifying the new manufacturing process were high. Additionally, achieving consistent quality and performance across production runs required extensive validation and testing.

5.2. Medical Industry

Case Study: Personalized Implants and Prosthetics by Oxford Performance Materials
Overview: Oxford Performance Materials uses metal AM to produce customized implants and prosthetics, such as patient-specific cranial implants and orthopedic devices.
Benefits: Metal AM allows for the production of highly personalized and complex implants that match the unique anatomy of each patient. This customization improves fit, comfort, and overall clinical outcomes.
Challenges: The high cost of medical-grade metal powders and the need for rigorous regulatory approvals pose significant challenges. Additionally, ensuring the consistent quality of implants and meeting stringent medical standards are critical.

5.3. Automotive Industry

Case Study: Bugatti Chiron’s Titanium Brake Calipers
Overview: Bugatti has employed metal AM to produce titanium brake calipers for the Chiron, a high-performance supercar. The brake calipers are manufactured using direct metal laser sintering (DMLS).
Benefits: The use of metal AM has resulted in a substantial weight reduction compared to traditional cast parts, enhancing the car’s performance and handling. The ability to create complex geometries also improves thermal performance and strength.
Challenges: The high cost of titanium powder and the need for precise control over the manufacturing process are significant. Ensuring that the brake calipers meet the performance and safety requirements for high-speed driving was a key challenge.

5.4. Defense Industry

Case Study: Lockheed Martin’s F-35 Joint Strike Fighter Components
Overview: Lockheed Martin has integrated metal AM to produce components for the F-35 Joint Strike Fighter, including parts for the aircraft’s engine and structural components.
Benefits: Metal AM has allowed for the production of lightweight, complex parts that are difficult to manufacture using traditional methods. This capability reduces weight and enhances the performance and durability of the aircraft.
Challenges: The initial development and certification process for using metal AM in defense applications were costly and time-consuming. Ensuring the reliability and quality of critical components is paramount.

5.5. Industrial Equipment

Case Study: Siemens Gas Turbine Parts
Overview: Siemens has adopted metal AM for producing high-performance components for gas turbines, such as burner nozzles and heat exchangers.
Benefits: Metal AM has enabled the production of parts with intricate cooling channels and optimized geometries that improve efficiency and performance. The technology also allows for faster prototyping and production of spare parts.
Challenges: The high cost of metal AM machines and materials, along with the need for ongoing research to enhance material properties and process stability, are significant challenges. Additionally, scaling the technology for large-scale industrial applications requires careful consideration.

5.6. Tooling and Manufacturing

Case Study: Tooling Components by 3D Systems
Overview: 3D Systems produces tooling components, such as injection molds and casting patterns, using metal AM technologies.
Benefits: Metal AM allows for the rapid production of complex tooling with reduced lead times. The technology also enables the creation of molds with integrated cooling channels, which improve the efficiency and quality of the manufacturing process.
Challenges: The cost of metal AM tooling is higher than traditional methods, which can impact the overall economics of the manufacturing process. Additionally, ensuring the durability and performance of AM-produced tooling under production conditions is critical.
These case studies demonstrate the diverse applications of metal additive manufacturing and highlight both the potential advantages and the challenges associated with the technology. Each example provides valuable lessons and insights into how metal AM can be effectively utilized across different industries while addressing the technical and economic hurdles that accompany its implementation.

6. Strategies for Overcoming Challenges

To advance metal additive manufacturing (AM) and address its current technical and economic challenges, various strategies and approaches can be employed. These strategies aim to enhance the technology's capabilities, reduce costs, and improve overall efficiency and adoption.

6.1. Advancing Technology and Materials

Material Innovation: Research and development in new metal powders and alloys are crucial for expanding the range of materials suitable for AM. Developing cost-effective, high-performance materials with desirable properties (e.g., strength, thermal resistance) can address material-related challenges and improve overall product performance.
Process Improvement: Ongoing advancements in AM technologies, such as enhanced laser systems, improved thermal control mechanisms, and faster build speeds, can address issues related to process control and production efficiency. Innovations in process automation and optimization also contribute to better control and reproducibility.
Hybrid Manufacturing: Combining metal AM with traditional manufacturing techniques, such as machining or casting, can leverage the strengths of both methods. For example, metal AM can be used to create complex geometries, while traditional methods can be used for finishing and achieving precise tolerances.

6.2. Reducing Costs

Economies of Scale: As metal AM technology matures and adoption increases, economies of scale can help reduce the cost of equipment and materials. Increased production volumes and competition among suppliers can lead to lower prices and more affordable solutions for manufacturers.
Material Efficiency: Improving powder recycling processes and reducing material waste can help lower the cost of raw materials. Techniques such as closed-loop powder recycling and efficient powder handling systems can contribute to cost savings and sustainability.
Cost-Effective Machines: Developing and investing in more cost-effective AM machines designed for specific applications or lower-volume production can help reduce the initial capital expenditure and make the technology more accessible to a broader range of users.

6.3. Enhancing Quality and Reliability

Standardization and Certification: Developing industry-wide standards and certification processes for metal AM parts can improve quality assurance and facilitate broader acceptance. Establishing benchmarks for performance, safety, and reliability helps ensure consistent quality and builds confidence among users.
Advanced Monitoring and Control: Implementing advanced monitoring and control systems, such as real-time sensors and machine learning algorithms, can enhance process control and defect detection. These technologies enable more precise adjustments during the manufacturing process and improve part quality.
Robust Testing Methods: Adapting and developing new non-destructive testing (NDT) methods tailored to metal AM components can improve quality assurance. Techniques such as X-ray computed tomography and ultrasonic testing are being refined to detect and evaluate defects in complex geometries.

6.4. Addressing Economic Viability

Application-Specific Solutions: Focusing on specific applications where metal AM offers clear advantages, such as producing complex or low-volume parts, can improve economic viability. Demonstrating the cost-benefit ratio in these niche applications can help build a case for broader adoption.
Collaborative Efforts: Partnerships between industry, academia, and research institutions can drive innovation and address common challenges. Collaborative projects and research initiatives can lead to shared resources, knowledge, and solutions that benefit the entire field of metal AM.
Business Models: Exploring alternative business models, such as service bureaus or on-demand manufacturing, can make metal AM more economically feasible for companies that do not have the resources for in-house production. These models can help reduce the financial burden and provide access to advanced manufacturing capabilities.

6.5. Improving Adoption and Training

Education and Training: Providing comprehensive training and education programs for engineers, technicians, and operators can help overcome the skills gap and ensure effective use of metal AM technologies. Training programs should focus on process optimization, quality control, and material handling.
Knowledge Sharing: Encouraging knowledge sharing and best practices among industry professionals can help address common challenges and accelerate the adoption of metal AM. Conferences, workshops, and industry forums can facilitate the exchange of ideas and experiences.
Regulatory and Certification Support: Engaging with regulatory bodies and industry organizations to develop and support standards and certifications for metal AM can help streamline approval processes and promote wider acceptance of the technology.
By implementing these strategies, the metal additive manufacturing industry can address its current challenges and unlock its full potential. Continuous innovation, collaboration, and a focus on practical solutions are key to advancing the technology and making it a viable option for a diverse range of applications.

7. Future Trends and Directions

The field of metal additive manufacturing (AM) is rapidly evolving, driven by technological advancements and increasing demand for innovative manufacturing solutions. Understanding future trends and directions is crucial for anticipating how metal AM will shape industries and address emerging challenges. This section explores key trends and potential developments in metal AM.

7.1. Technological Advancements

Advanced Materials: Research into new metal alloys, composites, and multi-material systems is expected to expand the range of applications for metal AM. Innovations such as high-temperature materials, high-strength alloys, and functional gradients will enhance performance and enable new applications.
Improved Printing Techniques: Developments in printing technologies, such as laser-based and electron beam-based methods, will likely lead to faster build speeds, higher resolution, and improved material properties. Enhanced process control and automation will also contribute to more consistent and reliable results.
Hybrid Manufacturing Systems: The integration of metal AM with traditional manufacturing processes, such as machining and casting, will become more prevalent. Hybrid systems that combine additive and subtractive methods can leverage the strengths of both approaches, optimizing production efficiency and part quality.

7.2. Automation and Digital Integration

Smart Manufacturing: The adoption of Industry 4.0 principles will lead to greater automation and digital integration in metal AM processes. Advanced sensors, real-time monitoring, and machine learning algorithms will enable predictive maintenance, process optimization, and adaptive manufacturing.
Digital Twins: The use of digital twins—virtual replicas of physical assets—will facilitate simulation and optimization of metal AM processes. Digital twins can help in predicting performance, identifying potential issues, and improving design and manufacturing strategies.
Enhanced Software Tools: Advanced software tools for design, simulation, and process control will become more sophisticated. These tools will support the development of complex geometries, optimize build parameters, and streamline the overall manufacturing workflow.

7.3. Cost Reduction and Accessibility

Lower Equipment Costs: As metal AM technology matures, the cost of equipment is expected to decrease, making it more accessible to a wider range of users. Economies of scale, increased competition, and technological advancements will contribute to lower initial investments and operational costs.
Material Efficiency: Improvements in powder recycling, material handling, and waste reduction will enhance the cost-effectiveness of metal AM. More efficient use of materials will lower production costs and improve sustainability.
On-Demand Manufacturing: The growth of on-demand manufacturing and service bureaus will provide more flexible and cost-effective solutions for producing metal AM parts. This model allows companies to access advanced manufacturing capabilities without the need for significant capital investment.

7.4. Industry Adoption and Applications

Aerospace and Defense: The aerospace and defense sectors will continue to be major adopters of metal AM due to the technology’s ability to produce complex, high-performance components. Applications such as engine parts, structural components, and custom tooling will drive further innovation and integration.
Medical and Healthcare: Metal AM will see increased use in the medical field for producing customized implants, prosthetics, and surgical instruments. Advances in biocompatible materials and personalized medicine will expand the scope of applications and improve patient outcomes.
Automotive and Industrial Equipment: The automotive industry will leverage metal AM for producing lightweight, high-strength parts and tooling. Industrial equipment manufacturers will use the technology to create complex components and improve manufacturing efficiency.

7.5. Environmental and Sustainability Considerations

Sustainable Practices: The adoption of sustainable practices in metal AM, such as energy-efficient processes and environmentally friendly materials, will become increasingly important. Reducing the environmental impact of manufacturing and promoting circular economy principles will be key areas of focus.
Recycling and Reuse: Enhancements in material recycling and reuse will contribute to the sustainability of metal AM. Developing efficient systems for powder recovery and recycling will help reduce waste and lower the environmental footprint.

7.6. Collaboration and Standardization

Industry Collaboration: Collaborative efforts between industry, academia, and research institutions will drive innovation and address common challenges. Joint research projects, shared resources, and knowledge exchange will accelerate the development and adoption of metal AM technologies.
Standards and Regulations: The development of industry standards and regulatory frameworks will support the growth of metal AM by ensuring quality, safety, and consistency. Standardization efforts will facilitate wider adoption and integration into existing manufacturing ecosystems.

7.7. Education and Workforce Development

Training Programs: The growth of metal AM will necessitate comprehensive training and education programs for engineers, technicians, and operators. Developing a skilled workforce will be essential for realizing the technology’s potential and addressing the skills gap.
Research and Innovation: Continued investment in research and development will drive innovation and address emerging challenges. Academic and industrial research will play a crucial role in advancing metal AM technologies and expanding their applications.
As metal additive manufacturing continues to evolve, these trends and directions will shape its future development and impact across various industries. Embracing technological advancements, focusing on cost reduction, and promoting sustainability will be key to unlocking the full potential of metal AM and driving its widespread adoption.

8. Conclusion

Metal additive manufacturing (AM) stands at the forefront of technological innovation, offering transformative potential across various industries including aerospace, automotive, medical, and defense. The technology's ability to produce complex geometries, reduce part counts, and enable customization has made it a compelling option for advanced manufacturing. However, the widespread adoption of metal AM is influenced by both technical and economic challenges that must be addressed to realize its full potential.

Technical Challenges:

Material Properties and Process Control: Achieving desired material properties and controlling the additive manufacturing process to ensure consistent part quality are critical. Advances in material science, improved process controls, and enhanced testing methods are essential to overcoming these challenges.
Quality Assurance: Developing reliable quality assurance methods and standards for metal AM components is crucial. Innovations in non-destructive testing and standardized metrics will help ensure the reliability and performance of AM-produced parts.

Economic Challenges:

High Costs: The initial capital investment in metal AM equipment and the cost of materials pose significant barriers. Strategies to reduce equipment costs, improve material efficiency, and leverage economies of scale are vital for enhancing the economic viability of metal AM.
Production Efficiency: Addressing issues related to build speed and throughput will be important for making metal AM more competitive with traditional manufacturing methods. Hybrid manufacturing approaches and advancements in printing technologies can help improve efficiency.

Future Trends:

Technological Advancements: Continued innovation in materials, printing techniques, and digital integration will drive the evolution of metal AM. The development of hybrid systems and smart manufacturing technologies will further enhance the capabilities and applications of metal AM.
Cost Reduction and Accessibility: As the technology matures, costs are expected to decrease, making metal AM more accessible to a broader range of users. On-demand manufacturing models and improved material recycling will contribute to cost-effectiveness and sustainability.
Industry Adoption: Key industries such as aerospace, medical, and automotive will continue to drive the adoption of metal AM. The technology’s ability to produce high-performance, customized components aligns well with the needs of these sectors.

Conclusion:

The future of metal additive manufacturing is promising, with significant advancements on the horizon. To fully capitalize on the benefits of metal AM, ongoing efforts in research, technology development, and collaboration are essential. Addressing technical and economic challenges through innovation and strategic approaches will pave the way for broader adoption and integration of metal AM into various manufacturing processes. By focusing on these areas, the metal AM industry can unlock new opportunities and drive continued growth and innovation in advanced manufacturing.

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