4.1. What Disappeared in the Design Blueprints for a Modern Rural Residential Building?
The design process of the collective housing of the Weixing commune by SCIT was introduced following the investigation of the detailed proposal from a micro perspective. It has been confirmed that the designers focused on the standardized production of housing through the combination of the flexible units; they have learnt from the local existing housing system. For example, along with ensuring collective life, the system can also provide an independent room for commune members’ daily living. As apparent from the collective housing of the Longgou production brigade, the per capita living area was just the same. With regard to the exterior design, the gable roof, the simple façade, and the axial symmetry were all just like the traditional house in Qianwan village. This demonstrated a sense of respect for the regional architecture. However, an important regional factor was ignored in the process of changing from the traditional house under the feudal society to the collective housing in the communist society.
As mentioned earlier, the Chinese government in 1958 called for the establishment of People’s Commune system to improve productivity to the greatest extent especially during the Great Leap Forward [
26]. Despite appearing in cities afterwards, communes initially expanded in the rural area. It was no doubt that in the rural commune agriculture was the main means of livelihood. It can be said that under the backdrop of the public ownership of property and collectivization of labor, the traditional small-scale peasant economy turned to communism all of a sudden in the rural areas of China. Besides taking part in collective farming, farmers could also have their own private plots and run a household sideline like poultry raising, fruit tree cultivation and so on. This was the only private income of farmers; it turned out to be the most important source to encourage them to carry out production independently. Next, we will review the changes of relevant policies issued on the farmers’ household sideline production by the Chinese government around 1958.
Due to the drastic and ideal policies in the initial stage, multiple problems have arisen in terms of the management of the People’s Commune. Thus, the CPC Central committee promulgated an instruction called the “12 items on agriculture” in November 1960 [
27]. The following are the items related to the private income of farmers:
(1) People’s Commune, production brigade and production team as three administrative levels in rural areas, should have their own separate ownership. Among them, the production team is the basic administrative level. It is the basic system of the people's commune at the present stage.
(2) Against equalitarianism and the act of transferring labor force arbitrarily and the communist style.
(5) Commune members are allowed to operate a small amount of private plots and small-scale household sidelines.
(10) Rural markets should be planned and led to recover. The rural economy should be invigorated.
(quoted from “Urgent instruction letter on current policy issues of rural people's communes” )
Just as the contents indicate, the “12 items on agriculture” attempted to correct equalitarianism and excessive collectivism in the management of communes. Particularly, article 5 and 10 reflected that the private economy in rural areas should be attended to again. Soon afterwards, the government published the official regulations in greater detail; they included the “Regulations on the work of rural People's communes (Draft amendment)” (60 items on agriculture) [
28], which is similar to the constitution. Notably, among the regulations, the chapter on “members’ household sideline” was included.
Chapter 5:Members’ household sideline
(39) Members’ household sideline of the People's Commune is a necessary supplement to the socialist economy. It is attached to the economy of collective ownership and economy owned by the people as a whole. It is their assistant. Under the condition of actively running the collective economy, not hindering the development of the collective economy, and ensuring the absolute advantage of the collective economy, People's Communes should allow and encourage members to use their remaining time and holidays to develop household sidelines, increase social products, increase members' income, and activate the rural market.
(40) Members of the People's commune may engage in the following household sideline productions:
Cultivate private plots allocated by collectives.
Raise pigs, sheep, rabbits, chickens, ducks, geese and other livestock and poultry, as well as sows and large livestock.
Carry out household handicraft production such as knitting, sewing and embroidery.
Engage in collection, fishing and hunting, sericulture, beekeeping, and other sideline production.
Plant fruit trees, mulberry trees, and bamboo trees in front of and behind the house or in other places designated by the production team. These things belong to the members forever.
(41) The products and income of members' household sidelines are owned and controlled by members.
(quoted from “Regulations on the work of rural People's communes (Draft amendment)”)
This demonstrates that the income and products of household sideline production as members’ private economy began be protected by the law. Moreover, it stipulates the specific ways of household sideline production. It brings to question the policy on household sidelines with regard to the case of the Weixing commune. According to “Trial regulations of Weixing People's Commune”[
29], it was stipulated in 1958 as follows:
On the basis of basically realizing the public ownership of the means of production, when members transfer to the commune, they should hand over all their private plots, and turn the private means of production such as homestead, livestock and trees into the public ownership of the whole commune, but they can leave a small amount of livestock and poultry, which are still privately owned by individuals.
(quoted from “Trial regulations of Weixing people's Commune”, 1958)
It can be found that at the beginning of the establishment of the Weixing commune in 1958, homesteads, livestock, trees and other private means of production have all been publicly owned, and the private economy almost no longer exists. As a result, farmers' enthusiasm for production reduced, and they cannot even maintain a normal standard of living.
Through the review of the policies in the above-mentioned periods, it can be observed to have gradually shifted from absolute equalitarianism and collective economy to the reward of household sideline production under the People's Commune system.
When the traditional house in Qianwan village and the design scheme by SCIT are compared (
Figure 8), although the designers provided a low-cost and economical collective housing scheme and learned from local buildings, one of the most important element in traditional houses has disappeared in the design proposal drawing—the courtyard in the center. Of course, in such a collective house, the imperfection of infrastructure such as water supply and drainage due to the economic conditions at that time will eventually make it difficult for the scheme to be built. The disappearance of the important role of household sideline production in traditional housing can be fatal—this study termed it the “courtyard of production”. This is not just a simple shift from traditional courtyard houses to modern standardized residential buildings; it reminds us that we cannot ignore the fact that the core of farmers' production and life has disappeared during this transition. However, in 1958, the then commune leaders, farmers and architectural experts did not realize this fact. If the situation of Chinese architectural circle at the time were reviewed, just as table 1 indicates,only two cases (No. 13 and No. 14) mentioned that there should be a place for household sideline production. This means that at that time, almost everyone focused on the production of low-cost standard houses and ignored the immediate production needs of farmers.
In September of 1962,Jin Oubu, then deputy secretary general of the Architectural Society of China wrote in an article called “Discussion on several problems in current rural housing design” as follows:
To do a good job in rural housing design is an important task for the current design work to support agricultural production.
Rural houses are generally composed of residential houses and courtyards. It should not only meet the requirements of the lives of farmers, but also meet their requirements on the part of agricultural and sideline production.
(quoted from “Discussion on several problems in current rural housing design”, 1962[
30])
4.2. What Kind of “Rural Modernity” Is Reflected in the Design of People's Commune Housing?
Some scholars summarize modernity in architecture as the new modern attributes brought to architecture in the process of changes, which is ultimately reflected in the change of the four main elements of the architectural system: technology, function, ideology, and system. We have already discussed the functions involved in the new life under the ideology of the commune, and the rural architectural “creation” in the commune period. Meanwhile, it was influenced by the architectural trend of the 1950s from the style to the level of creative thinking. Therefore, this paper focuses on the “modernity” reflected in the process of rural construction led by the people's commune system from the technical and institutional levels and tries to summarize its characteristics.
Leaving aside agricultural technologies such as mechanized farming and new planting methods, as far as spatial production is concerned, architectural technology involves materials, structures, construction and equipment. The architectural system involves design, construction and management, etc., and according to Marxist theory, the transformation of the world involves the relations of production and the productive forces. Firstly, at the level of relations of production in communal spatial production, unlike the employer-employee relationship between the owner and the designer in the city, the communalization of the means of production and the corresponding distribution system - the supply system and the work-point system practiced in the rural communes have influenced and created a new type of relationship in the communal architectural production. This relationship manifested itself in the collective contribution of members to the work, joint use, and collective ownership, and even the participation of peasants in the design phase of the proposal. In other words, the production of physical space in the commune, like the construction of farmland, water conservancy, and other infrastructures, was part of the overall construction of the commune, and its “owners,” “users,” and “builders” were all members of the commune. Under the common goal of improving productivity and living a happy life, members of the commune in the spirit of self-reliance, form a new production relations belonging to this period: “collective wisdom and efforts”.
On the other hand, what are the qualities of the technology used in construction, i.e., the productivity component, in addition to the people themselves and their organization. Generally, the core elements of productivity in construction are tools, materials and methods. First of all, as far as tools are concerned, they can be divided into construction tools, which are nothing more than traditional production methods, and equipment; although complete infrastructure such as lighting, water supply, and power supply were included in the housing plans in the villagers' voices and the designers' blueprints, “electrification” was still not realized under the circumstances of 1950s. It was replaced by passive, climate-specific adaptation strategies, such as the use of side porches to increase natural ventilation in hot climates, as showed in No. 7, 11, and Secondly, in terms of materials and methods, if the construction of rural buildings in pre-industrialized societies was based on traditional materials and corresponding traditional masonry methods, the introduction of the commune system modernized the technological aspects of building production to a certain extent, mainly through the use of new materials such as iron and concrete, such as the new truss structure presented in the building of the Great Hall(Figure 10 and 11). Above all, this is a low-tech strategy belonging to that special era, reflecting the quality of “combining local and foreign cultures”. On the one hand, different from the traditional masonry methods that have lasted for thousands of years, the commune construction has its modernity, on the other hand, it is also very different from the modern materials and complete technology used in the same period of the production of iconic urban buildings, it is a kind of intermediate between traditional and modern.