Perspectives and Realities of Disengagement Among Younger Generation Y and Z Workers in Contemporary Work Dynamic

1. Introduction

Across the world, engagement or disengagement among workers, particularly within younger generations, namely Generation Y and Generation Z, constitute essential dimensions of organizational behavior in the current context of workforce dynamics.

Engagement is defined as a psychological and emotional state of involvement of employees with their work, characterized by enthusiasm, dedication, and immersion in work activities. Disengagement occurs when workers no longer demonstrate interest, motivation, or involvement in their roles. The transition between engagement and disengagement does not occur abruptly but rather as a continuous process, influenced by individual and organizational factors (Alessandri et. al., 2018; Gumilang & Indrayanti, 2022; Hudiono & Sari, 2022).

The concept of work involvement has been widely studied, particularly through the Job Demands-Resources model by Bakker & Demerouti (2007) and the Self-Determination Theory by Deci & Ryan (1985).

The Job Demands-Resources model, developed by Bakker & Demerouti (2007), explains how job demands and resources influence workers’ well-being and performance. Job demands are aspects of work that require continuous effort and may generate physical and psychological costs, such as a high workload, time pressure, interpersonal conflicts, and emotional demands. Job resources, on the other hand, are factors that help achieve objectives, reduce the impact of demands, and promote professional development, including autonomy, social support, growth opportunities, and constructive feedback. The balance between these demands and resources determines (or not) the level of motivation, engagement, and well-being of workers. Disengagement occurs when workers lose interest, motivation, and involvement in their work. In the Job Demands-Resources model, disengagement can result from an imbalance between high job demands and a lack of job resources. Excessive demands, such as a high workload, time pressure, and intense emotional demands, can lead to overload and demotivation, particularly when there are no adequate support mechanisms. Similarly, the absence of resources, such as autonomy, recognition, peer support, and growth opportunities, reduces workers’ ability to cope with challenges, resulting in emotional and professional withdrawal. Disengagement is often associated with burnout, especially in its emotional exhaustion dimension, where workers feel drained of energy to dedicate themselves to their work. Another factor contributing to disengagement is a lack of alignment with the organization’s values. When workers do not identify with the organization’s culture, mission, or objectives, they tend to feel disconnected and less motivated to invest effort in their roles.

The Self-Determination Theory, developed by Deci & Ryan (1985), explores how internal and external factors influence human motivation, based on the premise that individuals have innate psychological needs, the fulfilment of which can be facilitated or hindered by their environment. The theory proposes that motivation varies along a continuum, from extrinsic motivation, driven by external factors such as rewards and punishments, to intrinsic motivation, based on personal interest and enjoyment. Within this framework, the theory identifies three psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Autonomy refers to the need for control over one’s own actions and choices. Competence relates to the sense of effectiveness in handling challenges, reinforced by learning opportunities and positive feedback. Relatedness, in turn, involves the need to establish meaningful social connections, with interpersonal support being a key factor in motivation and well-being. Disengagement occurs when workers feel they lack control over their actions (low autonomy), do not feel capable of handling challenges (low competence), or do not perceive meaningful connections with others (low relatedness). Additionally, when motivation is predominantly extrinsic, engagement may be superficial and unsustainable, leading to disinterest over time. If there is no transition towards more autonomous forms of motivation, workers may ultimately disconnect from their activities.

In the workplace, disengagement can manifest passively, through procrastination, decreased participation, and apathy, or actively, through resistance to change, reduced productivity, workplace absenteeism, or even the complete abandonment of an activity (Aldabbas et al., 2023; Hakanen et al., 2006; Jnaneswar & Ranjit, 2022; Pattnaik & Sahoo, 2020).

One of the actual current trends, in the world of work, is when employees disengage from their jobs and limit themselves to the bare minimum required, without making any additional effort, a phenomenon known as Quiet Quitting. The term Quiet Quitting emerged in the digital sphere in March 2022, introduced by Bryan Creely, a career coach and labor market influencer from Generation X in the United States, who coined the term while discussing an article about workers who were ‘slowing down’ at work, particularly influenced by the Covid-19 pandemic (Öztürk et al., 2023). The hashtag #quietquitting quickly went viral on the social media platform TikTok, especially among younger workers. Although the term implies ‘quitting’, it does not necessarily mean leaving a job but rather a gradual and unannounced withdrawal from work responsibilities (Hamouche et al., 2023; Liu-Lastres et al., 2024; Mahand & Caldwell, 2023).

Another movement, originating in China, emerged in 2021, known as ’tang ping’, which literally translates as ’lying flat’, and is characterized by resistance to social pressure to work long and exhausting hours at the expense of personal well-being (Hsu, 2022; Jingyi, 2022).

Another viral movement on social media is called ’I no longer dream of labor’, in which many users, mostly young people, share that they simply do not have a dream job.

However, the phenomena of ’Quiet Quitting’, ’Tang Ping’, and ’I No Longer Dream of Labor’ are not the only shifts in the labor market. The ’Great Dismissal’ and ’Great Resignation’ have led to significant labor shortages, making it difficult to fill specific roles and having devastating effects in several countries during and after the Covid-19 pandemic, such as Germany, Italy, Brazil, and the USA (Cossa et al., 2021).

The ’Great Dismissal’ refers to a scenario in which many workers are laid off by their employers, usually due to economic crises or organizational restructuring, and it is often a consequence of external factors affecting companies, leading to widespread job losses and workforce restructuring (Marks, 2023). The ’Great Resignation’ refers to a scenario in which workers voluntarily leave their jobs in masse, motivated by factors such as the pursuit of better work-life balance, career progression, or increased job satisfaction (Marks, 2023; Sheather & Slattery, 2021).

In addition to these phenomena, other terms have emerged in the labor market, primarily associated with younger workers and widely debated on social media, particularly as viral trends on TikTok.

One such case is ’Bare Minimum Monday’. This expression describes a phenomenon where workers exert minimal effort on Mondays, viewing it as a day to ease into the workload at the start of the week. Thus, by reducing their expectations, workers may feel less anxious on Sunday evenings and less overloaded on Monday mornings, in line with the conclusions of the study by Butler et al. (2014).

A different example is the ’Lazy Girl Job’, which is characterized as a movement for women, especially young women, promoting female empowerment and advocating for more flexible jobs, allowing them to prioritize their well-being and work-life balance. It should not be confused with the ’Lazy Girl’ stereotype but rather seen as a way to challenge traditional social norms regarding work and gender expectations, corroborating the study by Rani & Priya (2023).

A further instance is ’Rage Applying’, which refers to workers who are frustrated or dissatisfied with their current job (salaries, benefits, overload, ambiguity, lack of personal and professional prospects), who actively seek new opportunities and apply for other positions while still employed, in line with the study by Slaughter and Allen (2024).

Yet another phenomenon is ’Quiet Ambition’, where workers, especially younger ones, choose to forgo the prestige or status associated with positions or titles in order to prioritize their work-life balance and, in some cases, their academic life. This expression also applies to professionals who choose to remain in technical careers, prioritizing learning and professional development over managerial roles, according to the conclusions of the study by Fournier et al. (2020).

A final illustration is ’Loud Quitting’, where workers take ’noisy’ actions and openly express their dissatisfaction with their work lives, with the intent of directly harming the organization. These workers, who tend to ’noisily quit’, engage in behaviors that negatively impact organizations, such as resigning without warning, refusing to carry out tasks assigned to them, making inflammatory posts online, having unpleasant attitudes in public, and carrying out disruptive and potentially sabotaging actions, corroborating the study by Utkarsh et al. (2019).

All of these phenomena share in common worker disengagement and, for this reason, deserve closer examination, as it is important to reflect on and redefine the value attributed to work, especially in today’s world, where the nature of work has undergone profound transformations.

According to Kruse & Tata-Mbeng (2023), the implications of disengagement extend beyond individual dissatisfaction, as it affects the psychological and physiological well-being of workers, particularly among the younger segments of the workforce, with potential repercussions for overall worker performance, organizational effectiveness, and economic outcomes. It is therefore crucial to examine whether there is a significant relationship between disengagement and younger generations of workers, such as Generation Y and Generation Z.

Generation Y individuals, also known as digital natives or ’Millennials’, have grown up in a world shaped by rapidly evolving technology, where a significant portion of their activities takes place on digital screens. These individuals, born between 1981 and 1996, are currently aged between 25 and 40 and are more connected than previous generations, such as Generation X and Baby Boomers, with technology being an integral part of their daily lives (Azimi et al., 2021; Mahmoud et al., 2020; Thangavel et al., 2021). In the job market, Millennials are recognized as highly skilled, collaborative, and adaptable. They exhibit a strong collaborative mindset, thriving in team environments, exchanging ideas with colleagues, and continuously learning from their peers. Lifelong learning is a core aspect of their identity, and they demonstrate a remarkable ability to adapt to change.

Generation Z individuals, also known as ’Centennials’ or ’Post-Millennials’ (as well as ’iGen’ or ’Zoomers’), were born between 1997 and 2010 and are currently under the age of 25. This generation is characterized by its proficiency in technology, which may appear to result in a reduced emphasis on interpersonal relationships. However, paradoxically, Generation Z individuals demonstrate a strong commitment to social issues such as sustainability, gender equality, diversity, and inclusion, using digital platforms as a means of expression and mobilization (Mahmoud et al., 2020; Parry & Battista, 2019; Thangavel et al., 2021; Tran et al., 2024). In the job market, this youngest generation prefers to work independently and autonomously. It embodies diversity at its best, as these individuals grew up surrounded by classmates, friends, and family from various communities and expect to see the same level of inclusivity when they enter the workforce (Fenton, 2019).

As Aydin & Azizoğlu (2022) point out, Generation Z individuals are described as impatient, courageous, and unafraid to be pioneers, demonstrating the ability to challenge existing ideas and the confidence to express their desire for work-life balance, without exceeding their professional responsibilities. Compared to Generation Y, Generation Z individuals are portrayed as more inclined to break away from traditional norms and expectations, making them more likely to engage in behaviors such as disengagement.

Generation Z workers are expected to make up 75% of the global workforce by 2025, and they are projected to surpass Generation Y by 2050 (García et al., 2019; Xueyun et al., 2023). According to Formica & Sfodera (2022), these younger generations (Y and Z) constitute a substantial segment of the workforce, in which disengagement traits are prevalent. This suggests that many younger Millennials and Generation Z workers are not fully engaged in their work and may restrict themselves to fulfilling only the basic requirements of their job description. However, this disengagement is not limited to younger generations, such as Generation Y and Z. Recent studies indicate that workers from previous generations can also exhibit disengagement behaviors, particularly when dissatisfied with ineffective management within organizations (Agina et al., 2023 Chiesa et al., 2019; Khan & Khan, 2023; Oliveira & Cardoso, 2018).

According to the Gallup Reports (2023, 2024), more than half of the global workforce (59% in 2023 and 62% in 2024) is disengaged. These disengaged workers, in practice, have no emotional commitment to their organization.

On the other hand, the majority of workers are no longer ‘addicted’ to work (the workaholic concept), as they have realized that this practice is not beneficial - either for the worker themselves, who may experience burnout and develop other serious health issues, or for the organization, where productivity may decline due to exhaustion and worker fatigue.

These reports reveal a worrying trend of disengagement in the workplace among workers across different regions of the world. Most regions have a significant proportion of ’not engaged’ workers, with Europe leading this trend (72%), followed by Southeast Asia (68%). This data is crucial for understanding the phenomenon of disengagement, as a lack of worker engagement can negatively impact the work environment and, consequently, result in high costs due to lost productivity.

Despite its potential impact on society, academic inquiries into this topic remain limited. Although some studies exist in the literature, no research has comprehensively examined these phenomena or explored their relationship with employee engagement.

The aim of this article is, therefore, to conduct a critical analysis of worker engagement, particularly in relation to younger generations (Y and Z), drawing on relevant literature to identify the factors contributing to engagement or disengagement, assess its implications for workers and organizations, and propose effective strategies for prevention and mitigation. These strategies may support the development of an action plan to sustain employee engagement.

As a result, two key research questions emerged, guiding this study:

RQ1 – What factors influence worker disengagement?

RQ2 – What organizational strategies can be implemented to minimize disengagement?

Following this contextualization of the topic and the presentation of the research questions, the methodology employed is outlined. Next, the factors influencing engagement and disengagement among younger employees are examined, followed by an analysis of organizational strategies aimed at fostering a healthy and positive work environment while mitigating workplace disengagement. Finally, the concluding remarks highlight the study’s practical and theoretical implications, limitations, and recommendations for future research.

2. Method

In the current work dynamics, marked by a fast pace and increasing pressure, workers’ commitment to their jobs appears to have shifted more noticeably. For this reason, we saw the need to write an article that would enable us to compile information addressing the various questions raised above.

A literature review was thus conducted between April and December 2024, following these stages: identification of the topic; definition of inclusion and exclusion criteria for the selected articles; evaluation of the selected articles and interpretation of their respective results; and presentation of final considerations.

The inclusion criteria for the literature selection encompassed publication within the last 10 years (2014 to 2024), language, indexing in relevant databases, and key authors on the topic, even if outside the defined publication period.

The process of identifying relevant publications was conducted by combining the following descriptors/keywords: Employee Engagement and Employee Disengagement, which were always searched together as mandatory terms. Additionally, the descriptors Generation Y (or Millennials) and Generation Z were included as the target population (workers) of this study. Other descriptors were subsequently added (e.g. Job Satisfaction, Work Well-being, Motivation, Quiet Quitting), as they were closely associated with the main terms. Filters were applied based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria. This search yielded a total of 232 publications, of which 139 were deemed valid after a careful review of the titles and respective abstracts. Excluded publications either did not meet the established criteria or were duplicate entries. Table 1 outlines the methodology used for selecting the publication.

It is worth noting that the selected publications were read in full, allowing for the extraction of information deemed relevant to the study’s aim and the research questions.

It should be noted that, despite the existence of some publications on this subject in other databases (albeit limited), when considering only those indexed in Scopus or Web of Science and using the four mandatory descriptors for this study (’Employee Engagement’ OR ’Employee Disengagement’ AND ’Generation Y’ OR ’Millennials’ OR ’Generation Z’), no relevant publications were found, reinforcing the significance of this research gap.

3. Factors Influencing Worker Disengagement in Organizational Environments

In the current labor market dynamics, the paradigm has shifted. Workers are increasingly changing their attitudes towards work, showing signs of emotional disengagement, where work is no longer a priority (Hashiguchi et al., 2020; Patel et al., 2018). Younger workers, particularly from Generations Y and Z, are the primary drivers of this shift, displaying a growing pattern of disengagement, marked by declining motivation, lower commitment, and an increased tendency to change jobs frequently (Patel et al., 2018; Trisandri & Iskandar, 2024). These workers have adapted to the uncertainty of the labor market, prioritizing values they consider more important, such as happiness, well-being, and alignment with personal causes (Smaliukienė & Bekešienė, 2020). Unlike their parents (from older generations, such as Generation X), who were more committed to their jobs, younger workers tend to prevent work from ’spilling over’ into other aspects of their lives (Mahmoud et al., 2020; Smaliukienė & Bekešienė, 2020; Waworuntu et al., 2022).

Based on the selected articles and in response to the first research question (RQ1) – What factors influence worker disengagement? – several factors contributing to worker disengagement were identified, with potential negative impacts on the organization. These factors are particularly prevalent among Generation Y and Z workers, who have distinct expectations and needs regarding the work environment (Hashiguchi et al., 2020; Trisandri & Iskandar, 2024).

Inadequate Leadership

Several studies indicate that inadequate leadership can be a determining factor in worker disengagement (e.g., Ågotnes et al., 2018; Breevaart et al., 2014; Italiani et al., 2022; Joaquim et al., 2023; Lee et al., 2019; Moore et al., 2019; Setyaningsih & Indonesia, 2018). When leaders fail to provide clear guidance, constructive feedback, and adequate recognition, workers tend to experience frustration and demotivation (Al Zaydan et al., 2021; Kılıç & Günsel, 2019). While previous generations were more accustomed to rigid hierarchical structures and traditional leadership models, Generation Y and Z workers expect a more participative leadership style, characterized by frequent recognition and opportunities for development. When faced with authoritarian or indifferent leadership, Generation Y and Z workers tend to emotionally disengage from their work, which can lead to decreased productivity, increased absenteeism, and a higher propensity to seek new opportunities that better align with their professional and personal expectations (Ibtisam Khalid et al., 2024; Jung & Yoon, 2021; Kutlák, 2019; Mason & Brougham, 2020; Mihardjo et al., 2019).

Lack of Effective Communication

The absence of clear, transparent, and effective communication from leadership and within organizations can create uncertainty regarding objectives and expectations, as well as misunderstandings, frustrations, and a sense of disconnection. These factors lead workers to reduce their effort investment and commitment to professional performance. This reality becomes even more evident among Generation Y and Z workers, who value open communication, continuous feedback, and a collaborative work environment where they feel heard and recognized. Generation Y workers, accustomed to a constant flow of digital information and a frequent feedback culture, may interpret the lack of effective communication as a sign of disorganization or a lack of appreciation. In contrast, Generation Z workers, who grew up in a highly digitalized environment, expect communication to be direct, interactive, and immediate. The lack of effective digital communication channels for internal communication can result in a perceived disconnect from leadership and the company’s strategic vision (Alfina & Mardhiyah, 2023; Cardon et al., 2019; Gignac et al., 2020; Lee & Meng, 2021; Sanmas et al., 2024).

Digitization and New Technologies in the Labor Market

Another influential factor is the changes in the labor market driven by digitization, new technologies, and the expansion of remote work, which are redefining how workers engage with their roles and organizations. These transformations particularly affect Generation Y and Z workers, who are more familiar with digital technologies and expect companies to adopt modern tools that optimize productivity and encourage collaboration. However, while the transition to more flexible work formats presents new opportunities, it can also create challenges that, if poorly managed, lead to feelings of isolation, loss of connection with the team, and decreased organizational commitment. Generation Y and Z workers value flexibility but also need to feel integrated into their teams and aligned with the organizational culture. The absence of initiatives that promote interaction among employees can result in emotional detachment and, consequently, disengagement (Grunt et al., 2021; Mihardjo et al., 2019; Pietrantoni et al., 2024; Simanjuntak, 2023; Tokunova et al., 2024).

Misalignment of Workplace Well-Being Policies

Organizational policies that fail to promote well-being, such as those neglecting a healthy work-life balance, contribute to worker dissatisfaction and demotivation, leading to reduced effort and engagement in job roles (Al-Hamdan et al., 2016; Bosma et al., 2021; Hardiyanto et al., 2019; Sriekaningsih et al., 2018). An organization’s inability to adapt to workers’ needs, particularly through a lack of emotional support, negatively impacts employee commitment and dedication, potentially resulting in disengagement (Hamouche et al., 2023; Lee et al., 2019; Sujit & Harani, 2024).

Likewise, excessive workloads, by interfering with personal life and causing physical and emotional exhaustion (burnout), lead to a significant decline in worker motivation and commitment (Rani & Priya, 2023; Usniarti & Nuvriasari, 2024). This ongoing strain undermines employees’ mental health and negatively affects their performance capacity, perpetuating a cycle of demotivation, disengagement, and decreased productivity (Deomedes & Adam, 2021; Gilbert et al., 2023; Jennen et al., 2020; Nabahani & Riyanto, 2020).

Additionally, the absence of options such as remote work and flexible schedules is often perceived by employees as a reflection of organizational disregard, particularly by Generation Y and Z workers, who highly value workplace flexibility and the ability to balance professional responsibilities with personal interests. This perception negatively affects job satisfaction and reduces their level of engagement in their roles (Hakim, 2023; Jamal et al., 2023; Janovac et al., 2018; Jung & Yoon, 2021; Purwatiningsih & Sawitri, 2021; Smaliukienė & Bekešienė, 2020; Waworuntu et al., 2022).

Lack of Autonomy in the Workplace

The absence of autonomy in the workplace, reflected in the excessive restriction of decision-making and task management, generates frustration and a sense of devaluation among employees, leading them to adopt a minimal performance approach, fulfilling only the basic requirements of their role. For Generation Y and Z workers, who grew up in a context of greater independence and adaptability, where freedom of expression and autonomy in decision-making are highly valued, excessively hierarchical work environments, where their ideas and suggestions are not considered, result in a significant loss of motivation and detachment from organizational goals (Kruse & Tata-Mbeng, 2023; Pandey & Chauhan, 2021).

Lack of Professional Development and Training Opportunities

The lack of professional development opportunities, career progression prospects, and investment in continuous training-whether due to professional stagnation, the absence of promotion opportunities, or insufficient investment in employee learning and growth—compromises motivation and performance, leading workers to adopt a minimal level of commitment solely to maintain their jobs. This professional stagnation has an even greater impact on Generation Y and Z workers, as they are characterized by a growth-oriented mindset and constantly seek ways to enhance their professional skills. They highly value a dynamic, structured career path filled with continuous development opportunities. The perception of stagnation often prompts them to seek new job opportunities where they can expand their competencies and advance their careers. Likewise, these workers expect well-defined career plans, effective mentoring programs, and regular training opportunities through courses, certifications, and continuous learning programs that enable them to develop professionally and acquire new skills. When they perceive that these opportunities are limited or non-existent, that career progression is determined exclusively by tenure rather than merit, or that their potential is not being fully utilized, they experience increasing frustration and dissatisfaction. This dissatisfaction gradually leads to disengagement from their roles, prompting them to seek alternatives in the job market (Anika & Nurhayati, 2021; Boadi et al., 2020; Farivar et al., 2023; Järlström et al., 2020; Kruse & Tata-Mbeng, 2023; Leitão et al., 2019; Nipper & Wingerden, 2018; Orujaliyev, 2024; Sirojudin & Wijoyo, 2024; Wiroko & Evanytha, 2019; Yahya et al., 2018).

Workplace Injustice, Inequality, and Lack of Commitment to Diversity and Inclusion

The sense of injustice and inequality in the workplace, along with the lack of organizational commitment to diversity and inclusion, stemming from perceived unfair or discriminatory treatment, undermines employee motivation and commitment to the organization, potentially leading to reduced productivity and disengagement from their roles. This factor has a particularly significant impact on Generation Y and Z workers, who demonstrate increased sensitivity to issues related to justice and equity in the workplace. These younger generations value transparency in corporate policies and reject organizational cultures that perpetuate favoritism or inequalities related to gender, race, or age. Generation Y workers value inclusive work environments where representation and equity are prioritized, considering these aspects fundamental to fostering a positive organizational culture. Meanwhile, Generation Z workers, who are highly engaged in social causes and advocates for justice, may experience emotional detachment and a loss of connection if they perceive that the organization does not demonstrate an authentic commitment to diversity. This can lead them to seek opportunities in organizations that align with their values (Agina, 2023; Agina et al., 2023; Aysola et al., 2018; Chakrabarti et al., 2024; Gilbert et al., 2023; Jung et al., 2021; Mellacher & Scheuer, 2020; Murdoch, 2021; Sharma & Sharma, 2015; Smaliukienė & Bekešienė, 2020; Trisandri & Iskandar, 2024).

Inadequate Performance Evaluation and Reward Systems

Another factor that can lead to worker disengagement is dissatisfaction with performance evaluation and reward systems. A lack of transparency, fairness, and equity in these processes, combined with the perception that efforts are not properly recognized or rewarded, generates frustration and resentment. Generation Y and Z workers require recognition for their performance to remain motivated and committed to the organization. When they perceive that performance evaluation criteria are subjective or unclear, or that additional efforts are not properly valued, they tend to invest less effort and limit themselves to fulfilling only the minimum requirements, avoiding engagement beyond what is strictly necessary (Adamovic, 2023; Akinsola et al., 2024; Alfina & Mardhiyah, 2023; Doghan, 2019; Hareendrakumar et al., 2020; Hassan, 2022; Rehman et al., 2019; Rusdi & Rahadi, 2024; Sikira et al., 2024; Sriekaningsih et al., 2018; Umer et al., 2018; Wei, 2018).

Misalignment Between Personal Values and Organizational Culture

The lack of alignment between personal values and organizational culture also directly influences the engagement levels of Generation Y and Z workers. Generation Y workers tend to seek organizations that respect work-life balance and promote sustainability and corporate social responsibility practices. Meanwhile, Generation Z workers, who are highly critical of organizations’ environmental and social impact, may experience emotional disengagement when they perceive discrepancies between an organization’s discourse and its actions (Alfina & Mardhiyah, 2023; Guo et al., 2022; Italiani et al., 2022; Lesmana et al., 2023; Mileva & Hristova, 2022; Sriekaningsih et al., 2018; Tan et al., 2024).

Hostile or Toxic Organizational Environment

A hostile or toxic organizational environment, where harassment or bullying prevails, has a significant impact on worker disengagement. Generation Y workers value collaborative and inclusive workplaces and are less tolerant of authoritarian leadership or rigid hierarchies. Meanwhile, Generation Z workers, who have high expectations regarding workplace well-being, tend to quickly leave dysfunctional environments and often publicly expose poor corporate practices, using digital platforms to report abuse or discrimination (Benítez-Márquez et al., 2022; Giorgi et al., 2020; Mileva & Hristova, 2022; Ningrum et al., 2023; Praningrum et al., 2023; Raiu, 2020; Scharp et al., 2021).

In addition to these factors, other elements, although less frequently mentioned in the literature, can also contribute to worker disengagement.

Economic Insecurity and Job Instability

Economic insecurity and job instability are also critical factors for Generation Y and Z workers, especially during periods of uncertainty. Generation Y workers, who have experienced economic crises and difficulties accessing the job market, tend to value organizations that provide stability and opportunities for career progression. Generation Z workers, on the other hand, show a stronger inclination towards flexible and independent work models, such as the gig economy - a labor market model based on temporary, freelance, or short-term service contracts, often mediated by digital platforms, without traditional employment ties. These workers perceive job instability as a factor that drives them to explore more dynamic alternatives, such as remote work and entrepreneurship (Bentzen et al., 2020; Charkhabi, 2019; Duggan et al., 2019; Giorgi et al., 2020; Jung et al., 2021; Nath et al., 2023; Peterson & Crittenden, 2024; Russo & Terraneo, 2020; Usniarti & Nuvriasari, 2024).

Frequent Organizational Changes

Frequent organizational changes, such as restructuring, mergers, or acquisitions, can undermine the sense of stability and trust among Generation Y and Z workers. Generation Y workers, who are already accustomed to technological transformations and new work models, may demonstrate some resilience, provided there is transparent communication regarding the changes. However, Generation Z workers, who value more agile and adaptable structures, tend to experience frustration and demotivation when organizational changes do not result in concrete improvements or when uncertainty persists (Chaudhry, 2024; Edwards & Clinton, 2022; Ivanović & Ivančević, 2018; Witmer & Mellinger, 2016).

As observed, worker disengagement among Generation Y and Z stems from a combination of organizational, cultural, and structural factors that directly influence their motivation and commitment. Therefore, organizations must adopt strategies that promote employee engagement, regardless of generation or age, to improve the work environment.

To prevent disengagement, organizations should implement measures that foster healthy and positive work environments, as these not only benefit individual organizations but also contribute to a more sustainable society as a whole. Such initiatives create a positive impact not only on workers’ lives but also on their families and surrounding communities.

4. Organizational Strategies to Mitigate Employee Disengagement

Employee disengagement, characterized by the intentional reduction of effort and involvement, represents a significant challenge for contemporary organizations. Disengaged employees tend to be less productive, have higher absenteeism rates, and contribute less to innovation and continuous improvement. This scenario can create a vicious cycle, where the disengagement of some employees negatively influences others, fostering a culture of apathy and demotivation. In turn, this adversely affects cohesion and collaboration within the organization (Ullah et al., 2018; Zeidan & Itani, 2020).

The cumulative impact of this behavior can be devastating for organizations, not only in terms of immediate performance but also in their ability to attract and retain talent in the long term, as disengagement contributes to increased turnover. The departure of experienced employees can demoralize the remaining workforce, leading to a negative impact on team morale (Lee, 2017; Rahmayani et al., 2023; Yaseen, 2020).

This high turnover represents a significant financial burden for organizations, as it results in a continuous need to recruit and train new employees. Moreover, constant employee turnover introduces a frequent influx of new staff, which can disrupt team cohesion and slow organizational progress, ultimately negatively affecting productivity (Hom et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2022).

Inadequate management of worker disengagement can, therefore, lead to a downward spiral of disengagement. Since employee disengagement is one of the greatest challenges for modern organizations, as it directly impacts productivity and organizational effectiveness, organizations must mitigate these negative effects by developing effective and proactive strategies to re-engage their employees and foster a stimulating and motivating work environment. The key is to implement effective strategies that mitigate this behavior while promoting both individual well-being and organizational productivity. This requires adopting a holistic approach that considers both employees’ needs and the organization’s goals.

Therefore, based on the factors identified in the previous section that contribute to disengagement and to address Research Question 2 – RQ2: What organizational strategies can be implemented to minimize disengagement? – the following section presents key organizational mitigation strategies.

4.1. Physical and Mental Health Programs

Promotion of Physical and Mental Well-being

To mitigate disengagement and significantly enhance employee well-being, organizations can implement a range of programs that promote physical and mental health. These initiatives include workplace gymnastics, aimed at reducing muscle tension, improving posture, and increasing energy levels. This can be achieved through short physical exercise sessions conducted during working hours under the guidance of a physical education professional.

Additionally, yoga and meditation sessions can help alleviate stress, improve concentration, and enhance overall well-being. These sessions can be offered either in person or online, depending on employee needs. Other initiatives include exercise incentive programs, such as gym membership subsidies, walking/running groups, fitness challenges among employees, and corporate sports events.

Generation Y and Z workers highly value workplaces that prioritize their physical and mental well-being, considering such programs a reflection of the organization’s commitment to its employees. Furthermore, these generations actively seek a balance between professional and personal life, making them more appreciative of the availability of activities such as yoga and meditation. They also favor flexible exercise programs, whether in-person or virtual, as many of them prefer hybrid work models.

Encouraging Regular Breaks and Rest Areas

Another key aspect is the promotion of regular breaks during working hours. Encouraging employees to stand up, stretch, and clear their minds can help maintain energy levels and improve concentration throughout the day.

To effectively implement these breaks, break reminders via software can be used to prompt employees to take regular pauses. Additionally, organizations can create comfortable rest areas where employees can relax during breaks, as well as offer activities such as stretching sessions, yoga, or meditation as part of their workplace well-being strategies.

Generation Y and Z workers perceive breaks not just as moments of rest but also as opportunities to recharge their creativity and enhance productivity. They appreciate work models that encourage short, regular breaks, especially since these generations tend to value autonomy and efficiency in the workplace. Furthermore, they also favor well-designed rest areas, as these reinforce the idea of a human-centred work environment that prioritizes employee well-being.

Health Campaigns and Healthy Lifestyle Habits

In addition to these programs, health campaigns promoting healthy lifestyle habits can further enhance employee well-being. For example, balanced eating campaigns aim to encourage healthy diets that boost employees’ energy levels and overall health. These initiatives can be implemented through nutrition workshops, the availability of healthy options in workplace canteens and vending machines, and the distribution of informational materials on balanced eating.

A strong concern for healthy eating is a defining characteristic of Generation Y and Z workers, who actively seek balanced and sustainable food choices in their daily lives. These employees value easy access to nutritious food options in the workplace and consider initiatives such as nutrition workshops a significant benefit. Additionally, transparency regarding the origin of food products and an organization’s commitment to sustainable food practices can positively impact their level of engagement and workplace satisfaction.

Adopting an Ergonomic and Comfortable Work Environment

Another aspect is providing a work environment that is ergonomically designed to promote both the physical comfort and mental well-being of employees. This includes selecting appropriate furniture (e.g., adjustable chairs, height-adjustable desks, and footrests) and optimizing the layout of the physical workspace to ensure easy access to different work areas and adequate lighting-both natural and artificial.

Although creating an ergonomic work environment requires a significant initial investment, the long-term benefits for employee health and productivity outweigh the costs. Additionally, maintaining optimal working conditions requires an ongoing commitment, involving regular assessments and continuous updates to furniture and ergonomic practices.

Generation Y and Z workers tend to value modern, adaptable, and flexible workspaces that allow for different configurations depending on the task at hand. They appreciate the ability to choose between various types of furniture and personalize their work environment according to individual preferences. Moreover, the suitability of remote workspaces has become an increasing concern, with many organizations being evaluated based on the support they provide to employees in hybrid or remote setups.

Psychological Support and the Normalization of Mental Well-being

Another aspect is access to psychological support services, which aim to provide emotional assistance and help employees navigate personal and professional challenges. Organizations can establish partnerships with psychologists and therapists, offering free or subsidized sessions, as well as creating dedicated employee support programs. However, the effectiveness of these psychological support initiatives depends on fostering an organizational culture that values and normalizes seeking emotional help. Employees may often feel reluctant to use mental health services due to the associated stigma. For this reason, organizations must not only provide these resources but also actively work to destigmatize mental health concerns and ensure that these programs are fully integrated into the organizational culture.

Generation Y and Z individuals place great importance on emotional well-being and the ability to seek support without fear of judgment. While they appreciate the availability of psychological counseling within companies, the most decisive factor is their perception of an open and inclusive organizational culture. They also highly value the normalization of mental health discussions and the implementation of proactive strategies to prevent and address burnout.

4.2. Professional Development and Recognition Programs

Promotion of Training and Skills Development

To demonstrate their commitment to the continuous growth of their employees, organizations can facilitate access to training courses and skills development programs, covering both technical and behavioral competencies. This approach not only enhances employee qualifications but also fosters greater engagement and loyalty to the organization. To achieve this, companies should offer a diverse range of courses, including job-specific training as well as soft skills development (e.g., effective communication, leadership, time management, conflict resolution, and emotional intelligence), which are essential for professional performance and team dynamics.

To improve accessibility, organizations can utilize e-learning platforms, allowing employees to access training at any time and from any location, making it easier to balance learning with daily responsibilities. Additionally, offering subsidies for external courses or professional certifications can encourage continuous development.

Moreover, organizations can implement mentoring and coaching programs to support employees’ professional growth. Mentoring involves ongoing guidance from experienced professionals, who help employees develop their careers by providing practical advice and assisting in defining professional goals. Coaching, on the other hand, helps employees identify and overcome specific challenges, enhance their performance, and achieve targeted professional objectives through personalized one-on-one sessions with qualified coaches.

However, these initiatives require careful planning and a substantial investment of time and resources, which can be challenging for organizations with limited budgets. Thus, before implementing any training program, it is crucial to conduct a detailed analysis of both employee and organizational needs. This ensures that the courses provided align with the organization’s strategic goals and employees’ career aspirations.

Furthermore, organizations should establish an annual training and professional development calendar, allowing employees to plan their participation in advance. These initiatives demand significant resources, including hiring qualified trainers; developing high-quality content; acquiring suitable technological tools; ensuring the necessary infrastructure, such as training rooms, technological equipment, and e-learning platforms.

Generation Y and Z workers highly value continuous learning and personal development. They appreciate access to dynamic, interactive, and adaptable courses, particularly through digital formats, which are often considered a major factor in their decision to join and remain with an organization. Additionally, flexibility in accessing knowledge is a top priority for these generations, as they value the ability to learn at their own pace and balance training with other aspects of their lives. Mentoring and coaching programs are particularly appealing, as they offer tailored growth opportunities aligned with their career ambitions. The predictability and structure of training programs are also highly valued, as they enable better time management. Furthermore, these generations expect organizations to make a genuine and long-term investment in professional development, ensuring that it has a meaningful impact on their career trajectories.

Recognition and Reward Programs and Performance Management

Establishing recognition and reward programs that encourage productivity can reinforce positive behaviors and increase employee engagement. These programs may include various forms of recognition, such as monetary rewards, certificates of merit, professional development opportunities, and additional days off, among others. However, it is crucial to ensure that these programs do not foster an overly competitive or stressful work environment. While healthy competition can be beneficial, it must be balanced with collaboration and teamwork to cultivate a positive and supportive organizational culture.

Moreover, offering bonuses, salary increases, promotions, and other incentives based on individual performance and contributions can serve as effective strategies to keep employees motivated and engaged. However, these incentives must be equitable and transparent, with clearly communicated criteria for awarding them to all employees. Additionally, incentives should not be perceived solely as financial rewards but also as a meaningful acknowledgment of employees’ effort and dedication.

Likewise, when evaluating performance, setting clear and achievable goals that align with organizational objectives can ensure that everyone is working toward the same vision. Performance management tools, such as Objectives and Key Results (OKRs) and Key Performance Indicators (KPIs), can be used to monitor and evaluate employee progress. These tools help employees recognize the impact of their work on the organization’s overall objectives, strengthening their sense of purpose and belonging.

In addition, providing constructive and timely feedback can help keep employees motivated and committed. However, feedback must be specific, focused on observable behaviors, and accompanied by suggestions for improvement. Regular feedback sessions, rather than limiting evaluations to annual performance appraisals, allow for ongoing adjustments and support. Frequent discussions help resolve issues promptly and guide employees in the right direction.

To prevent performance management practices and recognition programs from creating an overly competitive environment, organizations can implement work-life balance policies, promote an inclusive work culture, and offer emotional and psychological support to employees.

Generation Y and Z workers appreciate recognition for their performance, but they place greater value on the significance of their work and its impact on the organization and society. However, these workers value meritocracy, provided that the criteria are clear and well-defined. As a result, transparency in evaluation and promotion processes is vital to prevent feelings of injustice. In line with this expectation, they prefer frequent and constructive feedback, favoring open and two-way communication. They also appreciate the use of digital performance monitoring tools, as long as these do not create a sense of micromanagement. This aspect is particularly significant, as Generation Y and Z workers recognize the benefits of digital tools for tracking performance but also highly value workplace autonomy. If these tools lead to excessive control or constant surveillance, they can foster a perception of distrust, reducing motivation and engagement. These generations prefer goal-oriented work rather than being monitored for every minor task, as constant scrutiny can create stress and hinder productivity. Therefore, organizations must balance effective performance tracking with fostering a sense of independence, ensuring that digital monitoring tools support productivity without undermining employee trust and autonomy.

4.3. Communication Programs and Organizational Flexibility

Culture of Open and Transparent Communication

Clear and transparent communication contributes to an environment of openness, ensuring that everyone is aware of the organization’s goals, challenges, and progress. This approach can reduce feelings of disconnection and demotivation, which are factors that frequently lead to employee disengagement. When employees feel comfortable expressing their opinions without fear of retaliation, trust between different hierarchical levels is strengthened, promoting long-term commitment. The exchange of ideas and open dialogue encourage cross-departmental collaboration, resulting in more innovative and effective solutions. A workplace that recognizes and values everyone’s contributions is more likely to foster creativity, enhancing both job satisfaction and a sense of belonging.

To establish a culture of open communication, organizations should hold regular meetings to track project progress, align expectations, and resolve outstanding issues. These meetings should provide equal opportunities for all team members to actively participate. Frequent one-on-one sessions between leadership and employees should be structured to address topics such as feedback, professional development, and specific concerns. Utilizing internal communication tools facilitates the instant exchange of information, while anonymous feedback systems provide a safe channel for employees to voice concerns or suggestions without fear of repercussions. However, collecting feedback alone is insufficient. Organizations must implement concrete measures based on employees’ insights and concerns. When leadership effectively communicates the decisions made in response to feedback and provides a rationale for these actions, it fosters a cycle of trust and continuous improvement.

Resistance to change is a common challenge, but it can be mitigated through training and awareness initiatives that emphasize the benefits of open communication. Leaders should set a strong example by demonstrating a willingness to listen and share information. Additionally, communication strategies must be tailored to the specific needs of different age groups to prevent disengagement and promote a more cohesive work environment.

The successful implementation of communication strategies requires a genuine commitment from organizational leadership. Without sufficient support and a culture that prioritizes transparency, any improvements to communication channels risk being superficial and ineffective. For organizations to fully capitalize on the advantages of structured communication, a comprehensive approach is necessary-one that includes training, the allocation of appropriate resources, and a cultural shift toward greater collaboration. Effective communication should not be regarded solely as a critical tool during crises but rather as an ongoing practice that is fully embedded in the organization’s culture.

Generation Y and Z workers value transparency and authenticity in corporate communication. They expect organizations to maintain an open and reciprocal dialogue, where they can actively participate and have their ideas acknowledged. A lack of clear communication can lead to rapid disengagement. These employees also appreciate efficiency and interactivity in communication. They prefer brief and goal-oriented meetings, as well as digital tools that enable seamless and real-time interaction. Moreover, they seek continuous and constructive feedback, rather than occasional formal evaluations. They also tend to resist rigid hierarchies and top-down communication models. Instead, they prefer a collaborative work environment, where communication is horizontal and open, allowing them to feel like integral members of the organization.

Adoption of Remote Work Policies and Flexible Working Hours

The introduction of remote work policies and flexible working hours has proven to be an effective response to the modern needs of workers. These policies facilitate a better balance between personal, family, and professional life, contributing to higher employee satisfaction and engagement. However, flexible working policies must be supported by a mindset that values employee autonomy and responsibility, fostering mutual trust between staff and leadership. Additionally, promoting virtual integration events, holding regular meetings, and providing continuous feedback can enhance team cohesion and strengthen professional relationships.

The possibility of remote work offers employees greater flexibility to manage their schedules more effectively, reducing long commuting times and allowing for a more comfortable working environment tailored to their personal needs. However, the effectiveness of this approach largely depends on the organization’s ability to manage remote teams and maintain team cohesion from a distance. Managing remote teams requires new skills and adaptations, both in leadership and among employees. Both leaders and employees must be prepared to navigate a virtual work environment effectively, which includes the ability to communicate clearly, set measurable goals, and maintain team motivation.

Generation Y and Z workers highly value flexibility and autonomy, considering them decisive factors when choosing an organization. Remote work and flexible schedules are seen as ways to enhance productivity and reduce stress, allowing for greater personalisation of the professional experience. The absence of these policies can lead to disengagement and a higher turnover rate.

Investment in Technology and Collaboration Tools

To overcome the challenges of remote working, organizations must invest in technology and collaboration tools. Video conferencing software, project management platforms, and real-time collaboration applications are essential for ensuring that teams can communicate and collaborate effectively, regardless of location. These technological resources facilitate information sharing, task management, and project coordination, promoting a cohesive and productive work environment.

To implement these policies and transform the work experience, organizations must invest in technology and tools that facilitate employees’ work, significantly improving operational efficiency and employee satisfaction. Collaboration tools, project management software, and the automation of repetitive tasks can reduce manual workloads, allowing employees to focus on more strategic and creative tasks.

This investment not only enhances employees’ daily work but also demonstrates the organization’s commitment to providing the best possible resources for their success. To this end, adequate training in the use of these technologies should be provided to ensure that all employees can fully utilize the available resources. Training sessions, online tutorials, and face-to-face workshops are some of the ways organizations can ensure that employees are well-prepared to use new tools.

Ongoing training also enables employees to stay up to date with the latest features and best practices. However, the implementation of new technologies must be accompanied by careful change management to prevent resistance and ensure successful adoption.

Effective change management involves clearly communicating the benefits of new technologies, listening to employee concerns, and providing ongoing support throughout the transition.

Generation Y and Z workers expect organizations to utilize advanced technology to optimize work processes and enhance collaboration. The absence of modern tools may be perceived as a sign of stagnation or a lack of investment in employee well-being. The integration of intuitive and efficient technology is considered a key factor in productivity and job satisfaction. Furthermore, these workers place high value on professional development and expect organizations to offer regular learning opportunities. A lack of investment in training may be seen as a barrier to career growth, leading to demotivation.

As digital natives, these individuals quickly adapt to virtual environments and technological changes, but they expect a transparent and participatory approach. Resistance arises when changes are imposed without prior consultation or adequate training.

Workplace wellness programs must be implemented on an ongoing basis rather than as a temporary response to crises. Likewise, organizational strategies to mitigate disengagement should be part of a holistic approach that includes other well-being initiatives and should not be viewed as an isolated solution. Thus, employee engagement programs require a serious commitment and substantial resources from organizations, something that not all are willing or able to provide. Furthermore, the effectiveness of these initiatives depends on fostering innovative organizational commitment and adopting a personalized approach that considers the diverse needs and expectations of employees.

Despite these efforts, engagement initiatives are often implemented in a superficial or sporadic manner, which can limit their long-term effectiveness. Moreover, the cultural and individual differences among employees must be taken into account when developing these initiatives to ensure that the strategies are adaptable and relevant to everyone. Additionally, such employee engagement initiatives require continuous effort and a genuine commitment from organizational leadership. Without strong leadership support and a sustained focus on employee well-being and development, any attempt to increase engagement may fail to achieve its full potential.

5. Final Considerations

This article discusses worker disengagement in the workplace, particularly among younger generations (Generation Y and Z). This behavior has evolved as employees’ expectations of work and the organizational environment change, highlighting the importance of understanding and addressing its causes and consequences.

Several factors contribute to worker disengagement and its growing prevalence. Among the main factors identified, highlighted in the literature, the disengagement of Generation Y and Z workers is influenced by a combination of organizational, cultural, and structural aspects that directly affect their motivation and commitment. Inadequate leadership, particularly the absence of participative management and recognition, contributes significantly to emotional detachment. Similarly, ineffective communication within organizations creates uncertainty and frustration, exacerbating disengagement. The rapid digitization of the labor market and the expansion of remote work, while offering flexibility, also introduce challenges such as isolation and decreased organizational commitment.

Another key factor is the misalignment of workplace well-being policies, where excessive workloads and inflexible work arrangements negatively impact job satisfaction. The lack of autonomy in decision-making processes also generates frustration, as younger workers expect environments that value their input and independence. Additionally, the scarcity of professional development opportunities, career progression, and continuous training leads to stagnation and reduced engagement, pushing workers to seek alternative opportunities. Workplace injustice, inequality, and the absence of genuine diversity and inclusion initiatives further alienate these generations, who place high value on fairness and transparency in corporate cultures.

Dissatisfaction with performance evaluation and reward systems, particularly when perceived as unfair or lacking transparency, diminishes motivation and fosters disengagement. Moreover, a lack of alignment between personal values and organizational culture reinforces emotional detachment, particularly when sustainability and social responsibility practices are not prioritized. A hostile or toxic work environment, characterized by harassment or bullying, further exacerbates disengagement, as these generations demonstrate lower tolerance for dysfunctional corporate cultures.

Additionally, economic insecurity and job instability contribute to disengagement, with Generation Y seeking stable employment opportunities, while Generation Z often explores flexible and independent work models. Frequent organizational changes, such as mergers or restructuring, also create uncertainty, impacting engagement levels. Addressing these factors requires organizations to implement strategies that enhance employee satisfaction, foster a positive work environment, and ensure alignment with the evolving expectations of Generation Y and Z workers.

Given the unique characteristics and motivations of younger generations (Y and Z), known for their technological proficiency and expectations of an inclusive and diverse work environment, among other characteristics, organizations must implement effective strategies to mitigate employee disengagement. This article suggests several approaches, including the implementation of physical and mental well-being programs, such as workplace exercise sessions, yoga and meditation classes, incentives for physical activity, and the creation of well-designed rest areas. Additionally, promoting healthy lifestyle campaigns and adopting ergonomically optimized work environments can contribute to enhanced employee well-being. Psychological support services and the normalization of mental health discussions are also recommended, with initiatives such as access to counseling services and the establishment of an organizational culture that prioritizes emotional well-being. Furthermore, organizations should provide continuous learning opportunities, mentoring and coaching programs, and incentives for obtaining professional certifications. The implementation of structured and transparent recognition and reward systems can further enhance employee motivation and commitment. Moreover, open and transparent communication, facilitated through regular meetings, continuous feedback systems, and interactive digital tools, strengthens trust and aligns organizational objectives with employee expectations. The adoption of flexible work policies, including remote work arrangements and adaptable schedules, as well as investments in technology and collaboration tools, addresses the preferences of Generations Y and Z for greater autonomy and work-life balance. However, these initiatives must be supported by robust change management frameworks to ensure their effective and sustained implementation. Therefore, the adoption of strategic, data-driven engagement initiatives, combined with a genuine organizational commitment, can mitigate the effects of disengagement and foster a more dynamic, innovative, and resilient work environment for younger generations.

Therefore, this research provides valuable guidance for organizations and contributes to the advancement of knowledge in this field, offering new perspectives and significant insights for theory, practice, and society as a whole. Identifying the signs of disengagement and understanding the factors contributing to this phenomenon can help organizations implement effective strategies preventively and proactively, fostering employee engagement and enhancing productivity. In doing so, organizations can avoid or mitigate silent employee disengagement.

Limitations and Future Research

However, some limitations can be identified in this study. One of the main constraints is the emphasis placed on younger generations, such as Generation Y and Z, which limits a more in-depth analysis of workers from other age groups and generations, including Generation X and Baby Boomers. Additionally, the strategies identified may require adaptation to specific contexts, as trends and external factors highlighted in the analysis are subject to change over time, potentially affecting the validity and relevance of the proposed strategies.

These limitations highlight the need for more comprehensive and in-depth studies to achieve a more complete understanding of disengagement. Several proposals for future research can be considered to address this gap. One approach would be to delve deeper into various aspects associated with the subject, such as including workers from different age groups and cultural backgrounds, to better understand how disengagement manifests across diverse populations and work environments.

Additionally, conducting comparative studies between organizations that have implemented strategies to mitigate disengagement and those that have not would allow for an assessment of the effectiveness of these approaches and the identification of best practices.

Similarly, exploring the impact of cultural and organizational diversity is essential, as disengagement may manifest differently across sectors and regions. International collaboration and data sharing could further contribute to a clearer global picture of disengagement.

Finally, longitudinal research would be valuable in tracking the evolution of disengagement over time, helping to identify possible trends or changes in its causes and consequences.