Biology and Life Sciences

Abstract: The increasing burden of municipal solid waste, petroleum hydrocarbons, industrial wastewater, saline soils, marine pollution, electronic wastes, and plastic contaminants is among the foremost global environmental issues that need sustainable remediation practices. In this review, the current status and future prospects in terms of the use of bioremediation techniques for environmental remediation are highlighted by discussing their advancements over the years 2020–2026. Various in situ and ex situ remediation techniques like bioaugmentation, biostimulation, biosparging, land farming, composting, bioreactor techniques, phytoremediation, activated sludge process, algal remediation, and fungal-based remediation techniques are highly efficient for the degradation of hydrocarbons, dyes, pharmaceutical compounds, heavy metals, volatile organic compounds, and new-age plastic pollutants. Microbial genera such as Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Alcanivorax, Aspergillus, Trametes, and halotolerant plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria exhibit an important role in pollutant mineralization, transformation, and detoxification through different metabolic pathways and enzyme systems. Emerging developments in synthetic biology, AI-assisted waste management, engineering of microbial consortia, and circular bio-economy models have enhanced the efficiency of remediation processes. Nonetheless, problems associated with scale-up, environmental variability, pollutant complexity, cost-effectiveness, and incomplete mineralization hinder practical application in field conditions.

Abstract: Kefir is a probiotic beverage produced by symbiotic bacteria and yeasts. Polysaccharides from yellow and black soybeans (S, B) were extracted, fermented to obtain S-F and B-F, and further oxidatively degraded using ascorbic acid and hydrogen peroxide to produce S-FD and B-FD. Compositional analyses revealed distinct differences in sugar content, protein, phenolics, monosaccharide composition, molecular weight, and Fourier transform infrared spectra among S-F, S-FD, B-F, and B-FD. Fermentation enhanced angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitory activity, and subsequent degradation further improved this effect. Both fermented and degraded polysaccharides exhibited strong antioxidant activities, including radical scavenging capacity, ferrous ion chelation, and reducing power, with degraded samples showing superior performance. Neuroprotective effects were evaluated using SH-SY5Y cells. No cytotoxicity was observed at concentrations up to 400 μg/mL. Treatment at 200 μg/mL significantly increased cell viability and reduced apoptosis in rotenone-induced cells. However, multivariate analysis indicated that oxidative degradation, while enhancing antioxidant and ACE inhibitory activities, may attenuate neuroprotective effects. Overall, soybean derived kefir polysaccharides show potential for applications in blood pressure regulation, antioxidant defense, and neuroprotection.

Abstract: Improving the productivity and stability of winter wheat under increasingly variable climatic conditions remains a major challenge for sustainable agriculture. This study evaluated the effects of pre-sowing seed treatment with a microbial preparation (Nando BioExpert) and a biostimulant (Vitazyme), applied individually and in combination, on crop establishment, yield components, and grain yield of winter wheat under unstable moisture conditions in the Right-Bank Forest-Steppe of Ukraine. A three-year field experiment demonstrated that both treatments positively influenced plant growth, while their combined application produced a pronounced synergistic effect. Seed treatment enhanced plant establishment, resulting in a higher plant density at emergence compared to the untreated control. This improvement contributed to increased productive tillering and a moderate rise in thousand-kernel weight. As a result, grain yield was consistently improved across years, with the combined treatment showing the greatest effect. On average, yield increases reached up to 37% relative to the control, indicating improved resilience of winter wheat to environmental stress. The findings suggest that integrating microbial inoculants with biostimulants is an effective agronomic strategy for enhancing winter wheat productivity under moisture-limited conditions, supporting the transition toward more sustainable and resource-efficient crop production systems.

Abstract: The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of tea tree essential oil (Melaleuca alternifolia) on postharvest rots caused by Botrytis cinerea and on the sensory quality of ‘Albion’ strawberries. The experiment was conducted with fruits from a production area in Lages, Santa Catarina, Brazil. The treatments consisted of a control (without essential oil) and tea tree essential oil at 50 and 250 µL L⁻¹, applied by fumigation. After treatment, the fruits were stored for three days. Rot incidence and severity, respiration and ethylene production, flesh penetration force, soluble solids, titratable acidity, skin color, total phenolic compounds, peroxidase activity, and volatile profile were evaluated. Tea tree oil reduced the development of B. cinerea at both concentrations. It also delayed red color development and reduced total phenolic content. At 250 µL L⁻¹, the oil increased respiration rate and reduced peroxidase activity. Ethylene production, titratable acidity, soluble solids, and flesh penetration force were not affected. The volatile profile was altered, with lower levels of characteristic strawberry volatiles and greater presence of terpene compounds typical of tea tree oil, especially at the higher concentration. Thus, tea tree oil reduced disease development but caused undesirable changes in fruit color and aroma profile.

Abstract: Because wood anatomical traits and tree-ring features vary with species and climatic regime, cellular-scale measurements complement ring-width chronologies and help with understanding how forests may respond to future environmental change. We developed anatomical chronologies spanning the 1900-2019 period from multi-century old yellow pines (Pinus jeffreyi Balf. and P. ponderosa P & C Laws.) at four sites surrounding the Tahoe Basin of the Sierra Nevada, at the border between Nevada and California, USA. Measurements of earlywood and latewood traits included lumen area, lumen length, lumen width, wall length, wall-to-lumen length ratio, and conductive area. Climate sensitivity was estimated by bootstrapped response functions with precipitation and temperature (monthly and seasonal) from the Global Historical Climate Network interpolated to the site locations. Moisture emerged as the primary control on anatomical trait expression, as significant coefficients involved precipitation rather than temperature. Earlywood lumen size and conductive capacity were associated with late-winter through spring moisture, while cellular wall characteristics were connected with conditions during the growing season. Overall, our study provided new insights into the potential impacts of climatic changes on woody species of remarkable size and longevity in an area that is prized for its natural beauty and scenic mountain landscapes.

Abstract: (1) Background: The MultiPill-Exercise study was an exercise-based lifestyle intervention program for subjects with more than one lifestyle-related disease. Metabolomics-based approaches are an emerging tool in sports medicine, both in basic science and in clinical contexts. In this explorative, hypothesis-generating study, we aimed at defining metabolite patterns in subjects with multimorbidity and to test the predictive value of metabolite patterns for fitness adaptation. (2) Methods: A targeted tandem mass spectrometry (MS) approach on dried spots of capillary blood was employed, analyzing n = 86 subjects. (3) Results: In response to an acute bout of exhaustive exercise, aromatic amino acids (AA) tyrosine (Tyr) and phenylalanine (Phe), total carnitine (Cx) and short- as well as medium-chain acylcarnitines (SCA and MCA) were upregulated. Furthermore, concentrations of most metabolites were higher in males. Multiple regression defined free carnitine (C0), MCA and MCA_Delta, i.e. changes in concentrations during acute exercise, as important predictors of intervention-associated fitness adaptation after six months, explaining 24.8% and 24.4% of absolute and relative power gains associated with a respiratory quotient (RQ) of 1, a submaximal fitness parameter. (4) Conclusions: Our data suggest utility of metabolomics data in subjects with multimorbidity, both in the context of basic research and clinical applications.

Abstract: Background/Objective: Caffeine is one of the most extensively investigated supple-ments worldwide, with evidence showing improvements in physical performance across ingestion doses commonly used in sports nutrition (2–9 mg·kg⁻¹). However, studies report substantial variability in aerobic performance outcomes following caf-feine intake, indicating that acute consumption may produce meaningful ergogenic effects but can also impair performance, with time-trial variation ranging from ap-proximately –3% to +16%. Since higher doses may increase the risk of adverse side ef-fects without offering clear added benefits, this review examined the effects of low (≤3 mg·kg⁻¹), moderate (4–6 mg·kg⁻¹), and high (>6 mg·kg⁻¹) caffeine doses on time-trial performance. Methods: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized, place-bo-controlled clinical trials evaluating the effects of anhydrous caffeine on aerobic time-trial outcomes was conducted. Random-effects models were applied due to nota-ble heterogeneity across studies, and risk of bias was assessed using the Cochrane Risk of Bias tool. Results: Forty-eight studies (716 participants) met the inclusion crite-ria. Both low and moderate caffeine doses significantly reduced time-trial completion time relative to placebo. Low doses produced a standardized mean difference of –0.27 (95% CI: –0.44 to –0.11; p = 0.001), whereas moderate doses resulted in an SMD of –0.52 (95% CI: –0.77 to –0.28; p < 0.0001). Conclusion: This is the first meta-analysis to demonstrate that pre-exercise ingestion of low caffeine doses (1.3–3 mg·kg⁻¹) can en-hance generalized aerobic performance. Notably, the use of moderate caffeine doses (4–6 mg·kg⁻¹) appears to produce a more consistent ergogenic effect.

Abstract: A function-based definition of a living individual as a central element and specially distinguished level of the phenomenon of life is proposed. According to this definition a living individual is a causally-closed network of five types of subordinate functions: p-processes (Ps), signals (Ss), feedbacks (Fs), re-writing (R(s)) and decoding (D(s)), directed recursively on the superior function: survival and proliferation (copying of its own identity in a possibly large number of copies possibly similar to the original), being self-dependent and self-sufficient in the realization of this purpose in its environment/ecological niche. This definition separates univocally living phenomena from inanimate processes in the case of the contemporary terrestrial life, origin of life on our planet, spontaneously-originated alien life in the universe, artificial and virtual life. According to this definition, life originated in the moment of formation of the first genetic code, including the “key” to this code coupling autocatalytic cycles of proteins (with random amino-acid sequences and divers catalytic abilities) and RNA (R), supported by and supporting proto-metabolism (P) and embedded in coacervate-like bubbles, into hypercycles of proteins and RNA (D) (“everything first” hypothesis). It clearly distinguishes the living individual from other levels of the organization of biological systems, such as living cells and organs, populations, ecosystems and the whole biosphere. Finally, it clearly decides whether such phenomena of doubtful status as viruses and viroids, plasmids, retrotransposons, chromosomes B, prions, cancer cells, mutualistic symbionts, mitochondria, colonial coelenterates, slime molds and eusocial insect(s) (colonies) are living individuals or not, and to what degree.

Abstract: Cognitive impairment (CI) is prevalent among heart failure (HF) patients. Although the brain injury in HF is multifactorial, oxidative stress and neuroinflammation are common pathological features of neurological disorders and are increasingly recognized as key underlying mechanisms of CI. The role of extracellular vesicles (EVs) as effective communicators of biological signaling in myocardial function has been extensively investigated. EVs are well-known to transport a variety of microRNAs (miRNAs), however, it is unclear if myocardial injury alters the miRNA profiling of brain EVs which may contribute to CI by disrupting brain homeostasis. Using a rodent myocardial infarction (MI) model, we isolated brain EVs, and characterized their miRNA profiling by small RNA sequencing. Our results demonstrate that miRNA profiling in brain EVs varies with the progression of HF. Only three miRNAs were significantly changed at 3wks post-MI, thirty-two miRNAs demonstrate significant changes at 6wks post-MI, and sixty-five miRNAs show significant alterations at 12wks post-MI. Bioinformatic analysis suggests that some miRNAs against oxidative stress and inflammation were downregulated in brain EVs following 6wks post-MI, whereas several miRNAs responsible for oxidative stress and neuroinflammation were significantly increased, which may be cardiac in origin following MI. Collectively, cardiac EVs may contribute to the miRNA alterations in brain EVs, potentially contributing to CI by disrupting brain homeostasis.

Abstract: Biochar amendment offers a promising strategy to enhance soil physicochemical performance and yield response in nutrient-poor sandy soils; however, its effectiveness depends strongly on feedstock type and application rate. This field study assessed the agronomic and sandy soil responses of tomatoes to biochars derived from date palm, maize, and potato residues, applied at 0, 2, 4, 8, and 16 t·ha⁻¹ under desert conditions in southeastern Algeria. Biochars were characterized for physicochemical and structural properties, and their effects on soil carbon, nutrient availability, and tomato yield were evaluated. The results showed that biochar application significantly increased soil total organic carbon (TOC) and total yield, particularly at low application rates. Date palm biochar applied at 2 t·ha⁻¹ produced the highest yield improvement, whereas excessive application tended to suppress yield. In contrast, soil N, P, and K did not show statistically significant differences among treatments, although slight numerical increases were observed compared to the control at medium application rates (4–8 t·ha⁻¹). These findings highlight the importance of optimizing biochar application rates according to feedstock type to maximize agronomic benefits. Overall, moderate biochar application represents a promising strategy for improving soil organic carbon status and crop productivity in desert sandy soils agroecosystems.

Abstract: Sub-Andean forests of the Colombian Central Cordillera are among the most biodiverse and threatened Neotropical ecosystems, yet their floristic, structural, and carbon dynamics remain poorly documented. We characterized the floristic diversity, vegetation structure, and aboveground carbon storage of the El Mangón sub-Andean forest remnant (24 ha; 1,600–1,700 m a.s.l., Cauca, Colombia) using free collections across the total area and a structural inventory in five 50 × 4 m transects (498 individuals, 35 species). A total of 281 species, 209 genera, and 100 families were recorded; epiphytes represented 44.13% of species, exceeding typical values (25–35%) for this forest type. Diversity indices were intermediate (H′ = 2.55; DMg = 5.47; 1−D = 0.89). Palicourea crocea dominated structurally (IVI = 45.12) and concentrated 31.2% of total carbon storage (894.41 kg·ha⁻¹; total = 2,866.23 kg·ha⁻¹). Three novel carbon indices (CVI, CCEI, CSI) integrate storage magnitude with ecological efficiency and spatial stability. The CSI was highest in low-aggregation species (1,618.23), with no significant differences among spatial groups (Kruskal–Wallis, p = 0.088). El Mangón ranks among the most diverse sub-Andean remnants of southwestern Colombia, underscoring its conservation priority in an increasingly fragmented landscape.

Abstract: The Tilapia (Oreochromis aureus) sustains more than 90% of the fishery value and volume in the Vicente Guerrero Reservoir (VGR), Northeast Mexico, but stock status is uncertain due to lack of assessments. A total of 1,792 individuals (2020-2021) were analyzed. Von Bertalanffy growth, total (Z), natural (M) and fishing (F) mortality, and exploitation rate (E) were estimated. Under a data-limited framework, four complementary approaches were applied: the LBB model, length-based indicators, empirical reference points, and ecological risk assessment. Growth was negatively allometric (b=2.89). Estimated parameters were: L∞=464 mm, K=0.2275 yr⁻¹, Z=3.591 yr⁻¹, M=0.3894 yr⁻¹, F=3.302 yr⁻¹, E=0.892. The LBB model estimated a relative biomass B/B₀=0.057 (95% CI: 0.042-0.072) and an F/M ratio of 8.48. Only 7.5% of individuals exceeded maturity length, 4.8% were at optimal length, and 2.6% were mega-spawners. Estimated fishing mortality exceeded the reference points (F_MSY=0.339 yr⁻¹; F_limit=0.508 yr⁻¹; F_crash=0.678 yr⁻¹) by 9.7, 6.5, and 4.9 times, respectively, classifying the stock as extreme high risk. The O. aureus stock in VGR is in biological collapse (B/B₀=5.7%; F/M=8.48). Increasing minimum capture length to at least 290 mm and reducing fishing effort by 80-90% is urgently required. The convergence of independent methods validates data-limited approaches for artisanal fisheries.

Abstract: Urbanisation is reshaping ecosystems and increasing human–wildlife interactions. Wild boar (Sus scrofa), a highly adaptable species, is increasingly common in European cities, where it exploits natural and anthropogenic resources, often leading to conflict. Predicting when and where wild boar enters urban areas remains challenging, particularly using scalable tools such as remote sensing. Here we show that temporal and spatial drivers of urban presence are decoupled in Barcelona over a 14-year period. Seasonal vegetation dynamics influenced the timing of urban incursions, with peaks in spring and late summer associated with changes in vegetation moisture and likely reinforced by increased energetic demands during reproduction and early lactation. However, remotely sensed vegetation indices captured these dynamics only partially, limiting their predictive power when used alone. Spatial variation in urban green area use was primarily explained by landscape structure, with proximity to streams and habitat fragmentation contributing similarly. Green areas near natural corridors concentrated higher and more variable presence, while heterogeneous landscapes likely facilitated repeated use by increasing access to foraging and refuge. Integrating remote sensing with landscape metrics can improve anticipation and management of human–wildlife conflicts.

Abstract: Background: Reliable normalization of gene expression data is essential for accurate interpretation of molecular mechanisms underlying fat deposition in broiler chickens. Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) is commonly used as a reference gene; however, its stability remains uncertain in adipose tissues. Methods: A systematic review was conducted, integrating evidence from transcriptomic and quantitative PCR studies. Relevant studies were identified through structured searches, citation tracking, and relevance screening, with emphasis on tissue specificity, developmental stage, and physiological variation. Results: GAPDH expression showed considerable variability across tissues and experimental conditions, particularly in adipose tissues where metabolic activity influences transcriptional regulation. In contrast, alternative reference genes, including 18S rRNA, PPIA, RPL19, and α-tubulin, demonstrated greater stability across conditions. Studies consistently reported that failure to validate reference genes introduces bias in gene expression analysis and may compromise interpretation of adipogenesis and lipid metabolism pathways. Conclusions: GAPDH is not a universally stable reference gene for adipose tissue studies in broiler chickens. Therefore, validation of reference genes is essential, and the use of multiple stable genes is recommended to ensure accurate normalization and reproducibility in poultry genomics research.

Abstract: Forest structural diversity is a critical determinant of ecosystem function, yet the long-term influence of disturbance history on stand architecture remains complex. Here, we evaluate how historical disturbances shape structural and compositional diversity across 59 fully mapped plots in temperate mountain forests. Using field-based measurements, we quantified a suite of spatial, size-based, and compositional metrics, including Shannon entropy, diameter/height differentiation, species intermingling, and composite indices (SDI, Arten–Profill). Plots were categorized by time since disturbance (Recent, Intermediate, and Historical). Our results reveal a decoupling of structural recovery trajectories: biomass and tree size metrics (QMD, height, volume) follow a predictable, linear path of accumulation with disturbance age. In contrast, complex spatial indicators—such as SDI, species intermingling, and Clark–Evans aggregation—exhibit a threshold-based recovery pattern, increasing rapidly during early succession before plateauing as stands mature. Multivariate analyses (PCA and hierarchical clustering) indicate that forest maturity is not a monolithic structural endpoint; rather, late-successional stands diverge into multiple successional trajectories, each defined by unique spatial and size configurations. Compositional metrics showed lower sensitivity to disturbance history than structural indices, suggesting that structural heterogeneity is a more persistent "memory" of stand development than species composition alone. These findings suggest that structural complexity is a "built-in" feature of early stand development. Consequently, management strategies should shift from volume-centric goals toward trajectory-based approaches, employing early-successional interventions (e.g., variable-density thinning) to steer uniform stands toward complex, resilient structural configurations before developmental thresholds stabilize.

Abstract: Leukocyte recruitment from blood into tissues usually involves sequential adhesive interactions, including selectin-mediated rolling followed by integrin-dependent ar-rest. Although CD44–hyaluronan interactions are known in leukocyte adhesion, their functional contribution to monocyte rolling under defined experimental conditions remains incompletely resolved. Here, we use controlled cell-based model systems dif-fering in α4-integrin ligand availability to dissect the relative contributions of CD44 and integrins to monocyte rolling under physiologic shear. Using mouse monocytoid WEHI 78/24 cells and primary human monocytes, we show that CD44-hyaluronan in-teractions support rolling and adhesion on hyaluronan-presenting cellular monolayers lacking VCAM-1–mediated integrin engagement, whereas α4-integrin–dependent in-teractions dominate when VCAM-1 is available. Functional blockade of CD44, soluble hyaluronan competition, and enzymatic hyaluronan removal consistently reduced rolling and adhesion under these conditions. These findings demonstrate that CD44-mediated rolling represents a context-dependent adhesion pathway that be-comes functionally apparent when dominant integrin-mediated interactions are lim-ited, but is masked when VCAM-1 is present. By experimentally minimizing integrin engagement, this study provides a reductionist framework to resolve the hierarchical relationship between CD44 and integrin pathways in monocyte adhesion.

Abstract: IoT/LoRa devices emit radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) ensuring long-range, low-power communication, and their use in precision agriculture continuously expands. Thus the interest in the impact of low intensity but long-term EMF exposure on plants has increased. In this study, maize plants were exposed to 868 MHz EMF for the first 28 days of their development with soil-buried antennas. Plants were divided into three groups: Control, Sham-exposed, and EMF-exposed. Biological effects were followed on morphological, physiological and biochemical levels every week. The plant height values were fitted to Gompertz function to model the growth. The results showed slightly faster early development of EMF-exposed plants in about 21 days. The relative dry leaf biomas from EMF-plants was a bit higher than Control and Sham until 21st day. Chlorophyll fluorescence analysis (JIP-test) indicated photosynthetic stability. Antioxidant enzymes activity, antioxidant capacity, content of malondialdehyde, hydrogen peroxide and reducing sugars were measured, and principal component analysis was done for all parameters. In general, the developmental stage accounted much more than EMF exposure for most of the observed data variation. The results suggest that under the tested conditions, IoT/LoRa-emitted EMF did not provoke adverse effects in maize and acted as a modest modulator of physiological functions.

Abstract: Feline pseudomembranous cystitis (PMC) is an infrequent condition characterized by acute urinary disturbances. This study examines the diagnostic criteria, surgical interventions, and postoperative management strategies to furnish clinical guidance. A retrospective analysis was conducted on the clinical data of a 3-year-old neutered male golden tabby cat (weighing 4 kg) presenting with acute urinary retention. The diagnosis of PMC was established through clinical manifestations, abdominal ultrasonography, and laboratory tests, followed by cystotomy and targeted postoperative management. The surgical procedure lasted one hour with a blood loss of 5 mL, and spontaneous urination resumed by the fourth postoperative day. Ultrasound examination on the twelfth day revealed normal bladder mucosa, and the infection had resolved without recurrence during the follow-up period. Cystotomy with complete pseudomembrane removal effectively treats severe feline pseudomembranous cystitis. Careful preoperative assessment, precise surgery, and postoperative treatment guided by drug sensitivity greatly reduce risks and enhance outcomes. Key to recovery are thorough pseudomembrane removal and proper bladder irrigation.

Abstract: Background: Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) affects approximately 1-2% of children worldwide, yet its etiology remains incompletely understood. Emerging evidence suggests that offspring of parents with autoimmune diseases show elevated autism prevalence. Notably, children of parents with psoriasis (OR 1.59), type 1 diabetes (OR 1.49-2.36), and rheumatoid arthritis (OR 1.51) demonstrate particularly strong associations.Hypothesis: I propose that autism may be conceptualized as an immune-metabolic disorder in which multiple pro-inflammatory cytokines—including TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, and IFN-γ—act through distinct molecular pathways yet converge on a common endpoint of mitochondrial dysfunction and cerebral energy deficiency. This convergence implies that it is the cumulative prenatal inflammatory burden, rather than any single cytokine, that drives the energy deficit. The resulting energy shortage may impair three critical processes: (1) synaptic pruning during neurodevelopment, (2) real-time social cognition including gaze processing and emotion recognition, and (3) protein synthesis of critical synaptic scaffolding molecules.The proposed mechanism is a chronic low-grade pro-inflammatory cytokine state—clinically silent, yet biologically consequential—arising from inherited inflammatory susceptibility and/or direct fetal exposure to elevated maternal inflammatory signaling during pregnancy. Unlike high-grade inflammatory states in which maternal and fetal survival are acutely threatened, low-grade cytokine elevations may proceed without conspicuous symptoms or detectable clinical signs, particularly when chronic. Although seemingly quiet, such a state may be insufficient to endanger maternal or fetal survival, yet sufficient to disrupt fetal brain bioenergetics during sensitive gestational windows—producing neonates who appear outwardly healthy at term while their neurodevelopmental trajectories have already been altered.I further propose that the well-documented "firstborn effect" in autism reflects maternal immune maladaptation during primigravid pregnancies. Additionally, for cases without parental autoimmune history, a speculative secondary mechanism is proposed: mitonuclear immune conflict, where paternal immune genes may partially recognize maternal mitochondria as non-self, generating endogenous pro-inflammatory signaling.Implications: This framework may provide an integrative account of disparate observations about autism pathophysiology and suggests that pro-inflammatory immune pathways and mitochondrial protection strategies merit further investigation for potential risk modification, particularly in pregnancies identified as high-risk through parental autoimmune or inflammatory disease. If supported by sufficient subsequent evidence, prenatal cytokine monitoring and corresponding clinical management—currently not part of routine obstetric care—may merit consideration by the medical community as a candidate strategy for autism risk reduction.

Abstract: The Developmental Origins of Health and Disease framework proposes that environmental exposures during critical periods of development can shape physiological systems and influence the risk of chronic diseases later in life, including diabetes and metabolic syndrome. Most research on metabolic programming has focused on classical metabolic organs such as the liver, pancreas, and adipose tissue. However, skeletal muscle plays a central role in systemic glucose homeostasis and metabolic flexibility, accounting for the majority of insulin-stimulated glucose uptake in the body. Because muscle metabolism is closely regulated by neural activity through the organization of motor units, the development of the motor neuromuscular axis may represent an underexplored dimension of metabolic programming. This review examines evidence linking early-life metabolic environments to neuromuscular development and discusses how alterations in the maturation of motor neurons, neuromuscular junctions, and muscle fiber phenotype may influence long-term metabolic outcomes. Evidence from epidemiological studies, experimental models, and mechanistic research suggests that maternal metabolic disturbances, including hyperglycemia, obesity, and systemic inflammation, can influence fetal development through metabolic and inflammatory pathways affecting both neural and muscular components of the motor system. These findings support the hypothesis that the motor neuromuscular axis may represent a structural interface linking early developmental exposures to long-term metabolic regulation and risk of metabolic syndrome.