The Great Tao Model: The Theory of Elementary Particles and Their Interactions

Assuming that an electron and a proton are infinitely far apart (sufficiently far away) from each other. Under the action of electrostatic attraction, the electron rotates around the proton in a spiral motion and gradually approaches it, continuously releasing radiant energy until it finally reaches an equilibrium state where the electrostatic attraction equals the centripetal force. At this point, the electron moves in a uniform circular motion around the proton and ceases to release radiant energy. This stable configuration is known as the ground state of a hydrogen atom. Let the radius of the electron’s orbit around the nucleus be r₀, and its orbital velocity be v₀, then

The energy of an electron in its ground state orbit is the sum of the potential energy E_p and the kinetic energy E_k:

Electrons reach the ground state orbit from infinity, and the potential energy of electrostatic attraction is converted into the kinetic energy E_k and radiation energy E_r of electrons:

It can be seen that when an electron enters the ground state orbit, half of its electrostatic potential energy is converted into the kinetic energy E_k, and the other half is converted into electromagnetic radiation energy E_r. It is precisely because of the mechanism of electromagnetic energy radiation during the electron’s accelerated motion that the electron’s velocity can decrease to a point where the centripetal force required for its circular motion equals the electrostatic attraction, achieving an equilibrium state. Otherwise, the speed of electron motion is too fast, so that the electrostatic attraction is less than the centripetal force required for circular motion, making it impossible for the proton to bind the electron, and a stable atomic system could not be formed.

Since electromagnetic radiation is generated by the accelerated motion of electrons, the electromagnetic radiation energy E_r can be calculated based on the accelerated motion of electrons. When an electron accelerates in a circular orbit around a proton, the change in its frequency over time corresponds exactly to the change over time in the electric charge existence field (electric field) and charge-momentum field (magnetic field). That is, for every additional circle of electron motion around a proton, it corresponds to an electromagnetic wave of exactly one frequency. This is the physical mechanism by which accelerated motion of an electron around a proton produces electromagnetic waves. Since the increase in electromagnetic wave energy manifests as an increase in the frequency of the electromagnetic wave, the energy carried by each wavelength of the electromagnetic wave is the same, regardless of the wavelength. Since the electron is the smallest unit of charge, the energy carried by one electromagnetic wave generated by the accelerated motion of a single electron around a proton can be regarded as the smallest unit of energy, namely, the energy quantum or light quantum ε, whose value is equal to Planck’s constant h. This is our revised concept of the quantum[4,5].

Assuming that an electron moves in a uniform circular motion around the proton at frequency f_n in a stationary energy level orbit n, and after radiating or absorbing light quanta, it transitions to a stationary energy level orbit m where it moves in a uniform circular motion around the nucleus at frequency f_m, taking a time duration of Δt seconds. The average rate of change of frequency is then given by:

The number of rotations that increase or decrease within Δt time is

Assuming that the electron gradually accelerates from an infinite distance from the proton (with a rotation frequency of 0) to a motion frequency of f₀ around the proton, and the required time is Δt, then the number of light quanta produced by the electron is

The value of radiation frequency is equal to the number of light quanta produced per unit time, that is

The total energy of radiation is

According to Equation (37), it can be concluded that

The time required for an electron to transition from a stationary state orbit n to a stationary state orbit m is known as the electron transition time. The frequency change rate ($a=∆f/∆t$) and radiation power ($P=∆E/∆t$) caused by electronic transitions are independent of the transition time $∆t$. Considering that physical quantities such as the energy radiated or absorbed, the radiation power, and Planck’s constant h all use 1 second as the unit of time, we can set $∆t$=1s for convenience in calculations. Since ε is the smallest energy unit (energy quantum), its energy accumulation per unit time is the Planck constant h, which is called the action quantum, i.e., ε$∆t$= h when $∆t$=1s. From Equation (44), we can obtain

This is the so-called Bohr radius. By substituting Equations (33), (35), and (37) separately, we can obtain

When an electron in a stationary state is illuminated by light, as it traverses through a changing electromagnetic field (electromagnetic wave), it experiences an electromagnetic force. The work done by this force on the electron is converted into an increase in its potential energy, resulting in an enlargement of its orbital radius around the proton. When the energy absorbed by the electron is precisely sufficient to propel it into a higher stationary state orbit, the electron undergoes a transition from one stationary state to another. Assuming that the electron’s orbital radius in the stationary state n is r_n and its energy is E_n, while in the stationary state m, its orbital radius is r_m and its energy is E_m, then the electromagnetic radiation energy absorbed by the electron is equal to the difference between the energy levels of these two stationary states:

Assuming the frequency of light is v and the electromagnetic energy absorbed by electrons is k light quanta, then

According to Equation (49)

By substituting (44) into the above equation, we can obtain

Let $∆t=1s$, then $\epsilon ∆t=h$, we get

Among them, $R={\displaystyle \frac{m{e}^4}{{{\epsilon }_0}^2{h}^{3}c}}$. According to the experimental data of hydrogen atom spectroscopy, the above formula is consistent with the Rydberg formula:

R is the Rydberg constant. Comparing (55) and (57), it can be concluded that

By substituting Equations (34) and (35) separately, we can obtain

The angular momentum of an electron in a stationary orbit is L=mvr. From (32), (45), and (58), it can be concluded that:

Due to the strong electrostatic attraction between electrons and protons, just like the tidal lock between the moon and the earth, an electron rotates once on its own axis as it completes one orbit around a proton.The angular velocity of the electron’s rotation is equal to the angular velocity of its orbit around the proton. According to the theory of existence fields, the charge spin quantity is $Q_s=e\omega$. This can be derived from Equations (46) and (58):

It can be seen that electrons radiate or absorb energy when transitioning between different stationary states (or orbits), and there exist integer-multiple relationships among the orbital radii, energy levels, orbital frequencies, angular momenta, and spin quantities between these stationary states. Bohr believed that when an electron transitions from one stationary state to another, it jumps instantaneously rather than moves continuously. In other words, electron transitions are completed instantaneously without intermediate states. This viewpoint, which contradicts the classical physics notion of continuous motion, is regarded as a unique quantization phenomenon of microscopic particles and has become a fundamental viewpoint of quantum mechanics theory. However, our research has demonstrated that the transition of electrons between different stationary states is a continuous process of acceleration or deceleration, corresponding to the emission or absorption of electromagnetic energy (light quanta) by the electrons.

When an electron interacts with a proton in a free state, they combine to form a ground-state hydrogen atom. Under special conditions, such as when a K-shell electron orbits outside an unstable atomic nucleus lacking a neutron, or under the immense gravitational pressure in supermassive celestial bodies, an electron and a proton can further combine to form a neutron. A neutron is composed of a subston, a positron, and an electron, with the sunston at the center and the positron and electron orbiting around it, the angular velocities of rotation are ${\omega }_p$ and ${\omega }_e$, respectively (Figure 5a). Assuming the mass of the subston is M, the distance between the subston and the positron is R, and the masses of the electron and the positron are both m, with a distance L between them. The positron orbits the subston center with a radius of R, while the electron orbits the nucleon center with a radius of R+L. Then, the centripetal force of the positron orbiting the subston center is:

The kinetic energy of a positron is

The centripetal force of electrons rotating around the center of the subston:

The total radiation energy of electrons is:

Under the action of electrostatic attraction, an electron and a positron accelerate their mutual revolution in a spiral motion and gradually approach each other. The electrostatic potential energy continually decreases, converting into the kinetic energy of the electron and positron, and continuously releasing radiation energy. Ultimately, a balanced state is achieved where the electrostatic attraction equals the centripetal force, at which point the release of radiation energy ceases, forming a stable electron-positron system. In this system, the electron and positron perform uniform circular motions around the system’s center of mass, with identical rotational radii r, each being half of the distance L between them (Figure 5b). It can be derived that:

The potential energy of an electron positron system is $-{\displaystyle \frac{e^2}{4\pi {\epsilon }_0{L}_0}}$, and the potential energy of a single electron (or anti electron) is half of it. The energy of an electron in its ground state orbit is the sum of the potential energy E_p and the kinetic energy E_k:

The electron reach the ground state orbit where it orbits with the positron from infinity, and the potential energy of electrostatic attraction is converted into the kinetic energy E_k and radiation energy E_r of the electron:

Since $E_r=∆E$, according to Equation (42), we can obtain:

By substituting Equation (74) into the above equation, we can obtain

Let $∆t$=1s, obtain

By substituting Equation (75), we get:

The electron (or positron) in a steady state, when exposed to light (electromagnetic radiation), transition from one steady state to another. Assuming that the electron has an orbital radius of r_n and energy of E_n in the steady state n, and an orbital radius of r_m and energy of E_m in the steady state m, the electromagnetic radiation energy absorbed by the electron is equal to the difference between the two steady state energy levels:

By substituting Equation (79) and L₀=2r₀, we can obtain

We can imagine that the system composed of electrons and positrons also satisfies the Rydberg formula, with a Rydberg constant of $R\text{'}={\displaystyle \frac{m{e}^4}{128{\epsilon }_0{h}^{2}c}}$. It is not difficult to prove that there are integer multiples of orbital radius, energy level, frequency, angular momentum, and spin between different stationary orbitals of electrons (or positrons) in this system.

Just as the hydrogen atomic system combines electrons and protons to form neutrons under special conditions, the electron-positron system will also combine to form the neutrino under special conditions. The radiation energy E_r of electrons (or positrons) is:

The radiation energy released by the combination of electrons and positrons has long been mistaken for an “annihilation reaction” of positive and negative particles, where the particles completely disappear and are converted into energy. But now we have a clear understanding that the combination of electrons and positrons can form structures similar to hydrogen atoms, and can also form neutrinos under special conditions, while releasing light or gamma rays. Using gamma rays to irradiate neutrinos will produce free electrons and positrons. According to Equation (82), given the frequency of gamma rays that irradiate neutrinos, we can calculate the radius r of neutrinos. Assuming a gamma ray frequency of 10¹⁹ Hz, the radius r of neutrinos is 4.35 × 10^-15 m. We refer to the reaction in which positive and negative particles meet and release radiation energy (γ rays) to form neutrinos as the “Radiation and Combination Reaction” (RC reaction). The combination of an electron and a positron forms an “electron positron” system, which exists in three forms: ground state, excited state, and neutrino state. This may be a possible explanation for the so-called neutrino oscillation.

Since a subston only has mass and no charge, the interaction between a positron and a subston is solely due to mass force (universal gravitation). Since the mass M of the subston is much greater than the mass m of the positron, we can approximate the matter particle as a stationary reference frame, with the positron moving around the subston and the gravitational force providing the centripetal force. As the positron accelerates and spirals closer to the subston, it releases radiative energy until it reaches an equilibrium state where the gravitational force equals the centripetal force, causing the positron to move in a uniform circular motion around the subston This stable configuration is referred to as the positron-subston system (Figure 5c). Assuming the orbital radius of the positron around the matter particle is r₀ and its orbital velocity is v₀, then

Positrons in a steady state, when exposed to light, transition from one steady state to another. Assuming that the positron has an electron orbital radius of r_n and energy of E_n in steady state n, and an orbital radius of r_m and energy of E_m in steady state m, the electromagnetic radiation absorbed by the positron is equal to the difference between the two steady state energy levels:

From Equation (42), we can obtain

Because $E_r=E_k=∆E$, therefore

Let $∆$t=1s, it can be obtained from Equations (89) and (91)

Compared to the Rydberg formula (57), in the positron-subston system, the Rydberg constant is denoted as R’. It is not difficult to prove that there exists a relationship of integer multiples among the orbital radii, energy levels, frequencies, angular momenta, and spin quantities of the different stationary states of the positron, just like in the electron-proton system and the electron-positron system.

Under certain conditions, a positron (or electron) tightly binds with a subston to form a proton (or antiproton). When the centripetal force required for the positron to move in uniform circular motion around the subston equals the gravitational force between the two elementary particles, the positron and the subston reach a stable equilibrium state. At this point, the positron rotates around the subston with a radius of R. Then,

Based on the existing proton radius of 0.833ⅹ10^-15 m and the proton mass of 1.672621637×10^-27 kg, using Equations (96) and (99), we obtain $\omega =13892.94352$ rad/s and v=$1105\mathrm{h}\mathrm{z}$. This suggests that the positron rotates quite slowly around the subston, implying that the proton would be highly unstable. However, in reality, the proton is extremely stable and cannot be decomposed even by gamma-ray irradiation. Therefore, the frequency of electromagnetic radiation released during the binding of the positron and the subston should be higher than the frequency of gamma rays. If the frequency of gamma rays is 10¹⁹ Hz, using Equation (100), it can be calculated that the proton radius should be at least less than $1.9\times {10}^{-26}$m to account for this stability.

Substons exert gravitational forces on each other. Can they combine to form structures similar to those in electron-positron systems? Assuming that the radius of the object rotating around the center of mass is r and the velocity is v, it undergoes uniform circular motion. Then:

The change in potential energy between substons is converted into kinetic energy and radiation energy:

Since substons have only mass and no charge, there is no electromagnetic radiation energy. The accelerated motion of a subston generates massomotive wave radiation, but the energy of massomotive wave radiation is very small and negligible. Therefore:

Due to $v_s=\sqrt{2}v>v$, it indicates that if all changes in potential energy are converted into kinetic energy, the velocity of the subston will be too fast, making it impossible for two substons to bind to each other and form a subston-subston system. Therefore, two stationary substons in a free state will not form a subston-subston system under their gravitational force. Under specific conditions, when substons move in the same direction and their relative velocities decrease, they may form subston-subston systems.

Firstly, the Great Tao Model brings to people’s attention that the concept of elementary particles involves profound philosophical questions about the origin of the universe. The Great Tao Model holds that the ultimate existence of the universe is the existence of elementary particles, and the existence of elementary particles is essentially the existence of their fundamental physical quantities, whose inherent properties conform to the fundamental law of the Way, namely the Yin-Yang principle. The Great Tao model embodies a deep philosophical foundation for the origin of the universe, following the philosophical thoughts of Lao Zi, an ancient Chinese sage. However, the SMPP lacks a philosophical foundation concerning the origin of the universe, and relies on the BBT. According to the BBT, the universe originated from the singularity of the Big Bang, but the origin of the singularity has no philosophical basis or scientific mechanism.

Secondly, the Great Tao Model reveals the most essential characteristics of elementary particles, namely, that they possess the simplest and fixed basic physical quantities, embodying eternal and stable existence. In the Great Tao Model, there are only three elementary particles and two fundamental physical quantities, all of which are eternal and stable existences. The elementary particles in the Great Tao Model perfectly conform to the basic concepts of elementary particles. However, in the SMPP, many entities labeled as “elementary particles” do not actually conform to the core essence of the concept of elementary particles. For example, some so-called elementary particles have no mass, failing to meet the requirement of being the smallest unit of a material entity. With 61 types of elementary particles and a multitude of basic physical quantities, the SMPP not only violates the principle of simplicity but also includes many concepts that are solely based on theoretical constructions and hypotheses, difficult to observe directly, such as color charge, isospin, weak isospin, hypercharge, weak hypercharge, flavor, and spin, forming a sharp contrast with the Great Tao Model (Figure 8). Furthermore, none of the so-called elementary particles can exist stably, and some even have extremely short existence times (lifespans), inconsistent with the requirement of stability for elementary particles. For instance, the mass of elementary particles is not an inherent and unchanging property but rather acquired through interactions with external fields (such as the Higgs field). Particles and antiparticles can constantly be created and annihilated in a vacuum.

Finally, the Great Tao Model elucidates the essence and laws by which composite particles are formed through the combination of Yin and Yang elementary particles. In this model, Yin and Yang elementary particles interact via electrostatic or gravitational forces to form composite particles, which subsequently constitute all phenomena in the universe. From the interaction of elementary particles to the formation of composite particles and ultimately all things in the universe, the physical mechanisms are simple and unified. In contrast, the SMPP suggests that particles with opposite charge properties will undergo annihilation reactions and completely disappear when they meet, implying that composite particles are not composed of Yin and Yang particles. Various theories proposed by people, which are extremely complex and lack unity, struggle to explain the formation of composite particles and are even more unable to provide a unified theoretical framework for the formation and evolution of all things in the universe.

Firstly, the Existence Field Theory profoundly reveals the essence of physical fields. According to this theory, the existence of fundamental physical quantities exerts physical influences on the surrounding space, implying that these quantities inherently possess the attribute of continuously and uniformly disseminating their physical information into the ambient space. Hence, the essence of a physical field lies in the inherent attributes manifested by the existence of fundamental physical quantities. Based on this understanding, we have revealed the fundamental characteristics of the Existence Field: the direction of propagation is from the elementary particles towards infinity, and the propagation speed of the Existence Field corresponds to the dissemination speed of the physical information of these fundamental quantities. Elementary particles propagate their physical information through the Existence Field and respond physically by receiving the physical information emitted by other elementary particles. Only physical information emitted by the same fundamental physical quantities can be received and produce physical effects, thereby enabling interactions solely between identical fundamental quantities. This explains why there is no interaction between gravitational and electromagnetic fields. Based on the basic physical quantities Q, distance r, and motion state of elementary particles (including motion modes: translation, rotation, or rotation, motion velocity or angular velocity), only 2 or 3 parameters are needed to describe the strength of the existence field and their interaction forces. The mathematical expression is simple and unified.

Secondly, the Theory of Existence Fields introduces some new concepts and corrects some erroneous ones. According to this theory, the motion of fundamental physical quantities generates kinematic physical quantities (i.e., momentum), including translational momentum, rotational momentum, and spin momentum. People are familiar with physical quantities such as mass-momentum (P_m=mv) and orbital angular momentum L (i.e., rotational mass-momentum P_rm=mvr), but have little knowledge or hold misconceptions about charge-momentum P_e, rotational charge-momentum P_re (orbital magnetic moment M), spin mass-momentum P_sm, and spin charge-momentum P_se. In fact, charge-momentum P_e is the product of charge e and velocity v, and the charge-momentum field is the magnetic field. Therefore, the mass-momentum generated by the motion of mass has a mass-momentum field similar to the magnetic field. The rotational momentum produced by the rotational motion of mass m is the orbital angular momentum mvr. Consequently, the rotational charge-momentum evr produced by the rotational motion of charge e should be the orbital magnetic moment. This represents an important correction to the current concept of magnetic moment, which originates from current-carrying coils. For a planar current-carrying coil, its magnetic moment is defined as $\overrightarrow{M}=i\overrightarrow{S}$ or $\overrightarrow{M}=iS\overrightarrow{e}$, where i is the current intensity and $\overrightarrow{S}$ is the area vector of the coil. The area itself is a scalar, but in the definition of magnetic moment, it is treated as a vector, leading to the creation of concepts like “directed area” or “pseudovector,” which cause confusion between scalars and vectors. Both current intensity i and area S are scalars, and it is unnatural to forcibly add a unit vector $\overrightarrow{e}$ to designate the direction of the magnetic moment. This implies that there are issues with the current concept of magnetic moment. Based on the current concept, the relationship between the electron’s orbital magnetic moment M and its orbital angular momentum L is derived as M=(e/2m)L, but experimental results show that a correction factor g (usually equal to 2) needs to be added, i.e., M=g(e/2m)L. However, based on the corrected concept of orbital magnetic moment from the Theory of Existence Fields, we obtain the relationship between the electron’s orbital magnetic moment M and its orbital angular momentum L : M=(e/m)L, without the need for a correction factor g.

In quantum mechanics, electron spin is considered an intrinsic property of electrons, rather than the literal rotational motion. Its spin state is not measured by its rotational speed, but by the so-called spin quantum number. This statement, which goes against classical physics and common sense and is difficult to understand, is regarded as the core concept of quantum mechanics. According to the Theory of Existence Field, electron spin is indeed the rotational motion of electrons, generating spin momentum, which encompasses both spin angular momentum L_s and spin magnetic moment M_s . From this, we derive the relationship between spin angular momentum and spin magnetic moment as M_s = (e/m)L_s. This relationship is analogous to that between the orbital magnetic moment M and orbital angular momentum L of an electron, and no correction factor g is required. This indicates that our revised concepts of orbital magnetic moment and spin magnetic moment are correct, and the so-called correction factor g and spin quantum number in quantum mechanics arise from the adoption of an incorrect concept of magnetic moment. Since the spin state of elementary particles is only related to their fundamental physical quantities Q and spin angular velocity, we propose the concept of spin quantity for elementary particles. The charge spin quantity field generated by charge spin is the magnetic field (spin magnetic field) produced by charge spinning motion. Mass spin motion will also generate a mass spin field similar to a spin magnetic field. The attractive force between two electrons with opposite spin directions is the interaction force between their charge spin fields, which we term electron spin magnetic force. The physical mechanism of electron spin pairing lays the foundation for our theory of atomic and molecular structures[6].

Finally, the Existence Field Theory reveals the physical mechanism through which accelerated motion of elementary particles generates electromagnetic waves and mass-momentum field waves. Since the Existence Field transmits physical information (without mass), it conforms to the laws of motion for massless “objects,” namely, uniform rectilinear motion relative to an absolutely stationary reference frame in a vacuum³. This characteristic determines that the motion of elementary particles will cause distortions in the propagation of the Existence Field. The uniform motion of elementary particles results in the uniform diffusion of these distorted changes in the Existence Field, described by the momentum field (charge-momentum field and mass-momentum field). The propagation of the momentum field can be termed the Existence Field Wave (charge field wave or mass field wave), which does not carry energy. Under the action of force, the accelerated motion of elementary particles leads to acceleration changes with field diffusion distortion, described by the rate of change of momentum field. The variation of momentum field over time is called momentum field wave (electromagnetic wave and mass-momentum field wave), which transmits information about the work done by the applied force. From the propagation laws of the Existence Field in the states of rest, uniform motion, and accelerated motion of elementary particles, the theory explains the propagation speed of the Existence Field, the formation of magnetic fields and electromagnetic waves, and also predicts the existence of the mass-momentum field and mass-momentum field waves, perfectly embodying the logical coherence and consistency of the Existence Field Theory.

Firstly, the mystery of dark matter and black holes has been uncovered. There are numerous astronomical observations indicating the existence of a large amount of dark matter in the universe[7,8,9,10,11]. In cosmology, dark matter is a substance that does not emit or absorb light, or interact with electromagnetic waves. Although many astronomical observations have been made on dark matter, its composition is still not fully understood. People speculate that one of the most likely candidates for dark matter is weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPs), which should be essentially electrically neutral and color neutral, and therefore not directly involved in electromagnetic and strong interactions[12]. In the SMPP, there are no particles that simultaneously satisfy these properties, which means that WIMP must be a new physical particle beyond the SMPP. Due to the lack of corresponding theoretical guidance, the global physics community has blindly searched for dark matter particles for more than half a century but still has achieved nothing. In the Great Tao Model, substons are are elementary particles with only mass and no charge. Due to the absence of charge, its acceleration does not generate electromagnetic radiation, and electromagnetic radiation cannot accelerate it, therefore it cannot absorb electromagnetic radiation. Obviously, subsons have identical physical characteristics to dark matter in cosmology, and we believe that the so-called dark matter particles are substons. According to our theory, a technical method for detecting dark matter particles (substons) can be designed, such as installing two devices, namely an electron beam (or positron beam) generator and an antiproton or proton detector. Dark matter particles (substons) in cosmic rays collide with electron beams (or positron beams), which may produce antiprotons or protons. Through antiproton or proton detectors, dark matter particles (substons) can be detected.

In the Great Tao Model, the mass of a subston is about 1836 times that of an electron or positron, providing over 99.9% of the mass of ordinary matter composed of electrons, protons, and neutrons, and being the main source of mass in the universe. In the process of the formation and evolution of the universe, the products of the RC reaction between hydrogen molecules and antihydrogen molecules in primordial celestial bodies are substons and neutrinos, among which substons account for the vast majority of the total amount of cosmic matter, which is consistent with astronomical observations that dark matter accounts for about 84% of cosmic matter. Substons play important roles in the evolution of the universe, such as influencing the formation of cosmic structures. Substons are the main source of mass for superclusters, galaxy clusters, and galaxy centers, which exist in the form of dark matter in the core regions of stars or exist independently as celestial bodies known as “dark stars”. The so-called “black hole” observed in astronomy is actually a “dark stars” formed by the condensation of substons. “Black hole” is a prediction of Einstein’s theory of general relativity, referring to a “singularity” with infinite density and volume, where spacetime is extremely distorted near the singularity. The event horizon of a black hole is a critical boundary that marks the area where light cannot escape. Obviously, the concept of a “black hole” violates many common sense in physics, and in fact, such celestial bodies do not exist. Despite the immense gravitational force of dark stars, there is no phenomenon where light cannot escape due to the lack of interaction between the gravitational field and the electromagnetic field. The reason why dark stars appear dark is that the substons that compose them carry no electric charge and thus never emit light. However, if matter is drawn by the powerful gravitational force of a dark star and accelerated towards it, charged particles within the matter will produce radiation during this infall process. For example, astronomers have observed that the supermassive “black hole”, Sagittarius A*, at the center of the Milky Way produces intense X-ray flares when it consumes surrounding matter[13].

Secondly, the mystery of neutrinos has been uncovered. In the SMPP, neutrinos are considered as elementary particles, including three types: electron neutrinos, muon (μ) neutrinos, and tau (τ) neutrinos, as well as their antiparticles. These three types of neutrinos can transform into each other during propagation, which is called neutrino oscillation. The Standard Model initially assumed that neutrinos had no mass, but later it acknowledged that they do have mass, albeit the exact mass remains a mystery. Obviously, the neutrinos described in the SMPP do not conform to the basic definition of elementary particles: their diversity violates the simplicity principle of elementary particles; and their mutual transformation among different types contradicts the invariance requirement of elementary particles. Furthermore, the initial assumption in the Standard Model that neutrinos have no mass contradicts the fundamental meaning of elementary particles as the smallest units composing material entities. According to the Great Tao Model, neutrinos are not elementary particles, but composite particles formed by the combination of electrons and positrons. Therefore, they are neutral particles with a mass twice that of an electron and interact very weakly with other matter. They do not have antiparticles, or their antiparticles are themselves (so-called “Majorana fermions”). If the combination of an electron and a positron to form an electron-positron system is termed the “neutrino system,” then this system exists in three forms based on its degree of tight binding or energy state: stable neutrinos, ground-state electron-positron systems, and excited-state electron-positron systems. This may be the true pattern of “neutrino oscillation.”

Quantum Field Theory predicts that the encounter between positive and negative matter will result in a so-called “annihilation reaction”, where matter will completely disappear and be converted into energy; Meanwhile, positive and negative particle pairs can also spontaneously generate through vacuum fluctuations. The phenomenon of γ rays produced by the encounter of positive and negative electrons in experiments is commonly regarded as direct evidence of matter-antimatter annihilation. In addition, the observation of γ rays producing electron-positron pairs in a vacuum is also generally considered direct evidence of the existence of vacuum fluctuations. For a long time, these experimental results and phenomena have been regarded as powerful validations for the predictions of the mass-energy equation and Quantum Field Theory. In fact, according to our theory, when positive and negative electrons encounter each other, they undergo an RC reaction, where the electron and positron accelerate under electrostatic attraction, producing electromagnetic radiation and combining to form a neutrino. There are a large number of neutrino rays in the universe, which can be excited and decomposed into positive and negative electron pairs when encountering γ rays in vacuum. The view that matter and antimatter annihilate and convert into energy when they encounter each other is mainly based on the mass-energy equation of Relativity and lacks any physical mechanism for how matter and antimatter annihilate and convert into energy. Our previous research has posed a disruptive challenge to relativity theory³. The generation and “annihilation” phenomenon of positive and negative electron pairs precisely confirms that neutrinos are composite particles composed of electrons and positrons, and also proves the errors in the Relativity mass-energy equation and Quantum Field Theory.

The neutrino was first proposed as a hypothetical particle by W. Pauli. He believed that, in addition to the electron, there was an electrically neutral particle (i.e., the neutrino) among the products of β decay, which could explain the apparent non-conservation of energy in β decay based on the mass-energy equation. This hypothesis was later developed into the β decay theory by E. Fermi[14], who suggested that β decay was driven by what was termed “weak interaction”. In 1956, Reines and Cowan bombarded protons with hypothetical antineutrinos that had yet to be verified, observing the predicted positron (p+$\overline{v_e}$→ n + e⁺)[15]. This experiment was interpreted as direct evidence supporting Pauli’s neutrino hypothesis or Fermi’s β decay theory, and further confirmed the existence of weak interaction. It also indirectly supported the correctness of the relativistic mass-energy equation. However, the theory of β decay has not been rigorously experimentally confirmed, as the experiment did not directly prove that neutrinos are produced by β decay, it only proved that positrons are produced by possible neutrino bombardment of protons. According to our theory, when a neutrino bombards a proton, the electron in the neutrino combines with the proton to form a neutron, while the positron is released. Obviously, our theory perfectly explains the experimental results of Reines and Cowan, or rather, their experimental results fully confirm our theory. This also implies that Pauli’s neutrino hypothesis and Fermi’s β decay theory are incorrect, and that the mass-energy equation and weak interaction have not been confirmed. However, despite the fact that Pauli’s neutrino hypothesis and Fermi’s theory of β decay were incorrect, the prediction of the existence of tiny neutral particles (neutrinos) was remarkably accurate, marking an intriguing coincidence. This bears a strong resemblance to the situation where Dirac predicted the positron.

Currently, it is believed that the primary sources of solar neutrinos are the proton-proton chain reaction (PP chain) and fusion reactions in the solar core, such as the Carbon-Nitrogen-Oxygen (CNO) cycle. The core of the PP chain involves the reaction of protons with protons to produce deuterium nuclei, positrons, and neutrinos: p+p→²H+e⁺+ν_e. This is theoretically based on the β⁺ decay theory (p→n+e⁺+ν_e). According to our theory, protons are composed of substons and positrons, and the collision of two protons cannot produce electrons, and therefore cannot form neutrons or neutrinos. Obviously, the traditional view that solar neutrinos originate from the PP chain and CNO cycle does not hold. According to our theory, there exists a dynamic equilibrium of neutron anti-neutron isomerization reactions, a dynamic equilibrium of bound neutrons and anti neutrons with free state neutrons or anti neutrons, and a dynamic equilibrium of neutrons with electron proton plasmas inside the Sun.Free neutrons and anti-neutrons undergo unstable disintegration into electrons, protons, anti-electrons, and anti-protons. Positive and negative matter combine and undergo RC reactions, forming neutrinos and substons, releasing a large amount of radiation energy. This is the physical mechanism behind the production of solar neutrinos. Under the high temperature and pressure conditions within the sun, protons can combine with neutrons to form atomic nuclei, which then combine with electrons to form elements. This is the physical mechanism of nuclear fusion that forms material elements. Obviously, deuterium is formed by the direct combination of a proton and a neutron under high temperature and pressure inside the Sun, rather than through the so-called PP chain.

A neutron star is a celestial body formed by the combination of neutrons and anti-neutrons. Due to the strong gravitational force, extreme high temperature and pressure conditions are formed inside, which will produce free state neutrons and anti-neutrons. Therefore, RC reactions will occur inside neutron stars, continuously releasing neutrinos and powerful γ rays. When neutron stars collide and merge with each other, the enormous energy generated by the impact and the increased mass lead to higher internal pressure and temperature, which will cause more bound neutrons and antineutrons to become free neutrons and antineutrons, and then undergo more intense RC reactions to form more neutrinos and substons, releasing more energy. So we will observe more neutrinos and stronger γ rays. Similarly, our theory can also explain why more neutrinos are emitted during supernova explosions.

Thirdly, the mystery of nuclear force, nuclear structure, and nuclear radiation has been uncovered, negating strong and weak interactions. For a long time, it has been difficult for people to understand why positively charged protons can tightly bind with neutrons to form stable atomic nuclei despite electrostatic repulsion. To solve this mystery, scientists have proposed the concept of nuclear force, which suggests that there exists a special interaction force between protons and neutrons (collectively known as nucleons), characterized by short-range, saturation, and charge independence. In order to delve deeper into the essence of nuclear force, scientists have proposed meson theory and quark theory, introducing concepts such as strong and weak interactions. However, these theories still have significant shortcomings and challenges in explaining the mystery of nuclear force. We believe that the core challenge facing existing theories is the lack of a correct understanding of which elementary particles make up protons and neutrons. In the Great Tao Model, we have clarified that a proton is composed of a positron and a subston, while a neutrons is composed of an electron and a proton. The interaction forces between protons and neutrons can be calculated based on the charge and mass interactions between elementary particles. Through calculations, it has been found that protons and neutrons have extremely strong electrostatic attraction when they are very close, but when the distance exceeds the range of the atomic nucleus, this attraction sharply decreases, exhibiting obvious short-range force characteristics. Therefore, we do not need to introduce the concept of strong interactions between nucleons to explain the tight binding of protons and neutrons in atomic nuclei. Meanwhile, based on the interaction between protons and neutrons, the crystal structure of atomic nuclei can be derived, and nuclear radiation can be explained as including α decay, β decay, and γ decay, without the need to introduce the concept of weak interactions. Our revelation of the neutrino mystery also proves that the β decay theory is incorrect and weak interactions do not exist. According to the Existence Field Theory of the Great Tao model, only the same fundamental physical quantities can interact with each other, and the fundamental physical quantities are only two types: charge and mass. Therefore, there are only two types of fundamental interactions between elementary particles, namely charge interaction and mass interaction, and there is no such thing as strong or weak interaction.

Fourthly, the mystery of Mercury’s precession and “gravitational waves” has been uncovered. The precession of Mercury has always been an important research topic in astronomy. General relativity holds that the precession of Mercury’s orbit is caused by the curvature of spacetime caused by the mass of the Sun. However, general relativity violates the normal concept of spacetime and cannot provide a normal physical explanation. According to the Theory of Existence Field, the interactions between masses include universal gravitation and mass-momentum force (including translational mass-momentum force, rotational mass-momentum force, and rotational mass-momentum force). Since the interaction force between masses is much smaller than that between charges, ordinary objects have small masses, and their gravitational and mass-momentum forces are extremely weak, making it difficult for people to feel or observe them. The discovery of universal gravitation is mainly due to the significant mass interaction between objects and the massive Earth. In fact, some gravitational anomalies have been discovered. For example, when a spacecraft passes through the Earth’s atmosphere, its orbit will slightly change[16]. This is actually because there is a clear mass-momentum force between the high-speed flying spacecraft and the massive Earth moving at high speed. If only the gravitational force between the spacecraft and the Earth is considered and the mass-momentum force is ignored, there will be a deviation between the theoretically calculated orbit and the actual operating orbit. Similarly, for a long time, people have only known about the gravitational force between the Sun and Mercury, without understanding the mass-momentum force between them, thus unable to explain Mercury’s precession. The sun has a huge mass, and its rotation generates a large rotational mass-momentum field (rotational angular momentum field). Other planets in the solar system are farther away from the Sun and have slower orbital speeds, so their mass-momentum force with the Sun are not very obvious. However, Mercury is closest to the Sun and has the fastest orbital speed, so its mass-momentum force with the Sun are more obvious. This is the fundamental reason for Mercury’s precession.

“Gravitational wave” is one of the predictions of Einstein’s theory of general relativity. “Gravitational waves” are believed to be “spacetime ripples” generated by the acceleration of mass and are related to gravity. Although he predicted that mass acceleration would produce “gravitational waves”, he did not have a profound understanding of the essence of “gravitational waves”. According to the Theory of Existence Field, the wave generated by the acceleration of mass motion is called “mass-momentum field wave”, which is the phenomenon of accelerated distortion of the mass existence field in space. It is similar to the electromagnetic wave generated by the acceleration of charge motion. Many astronomical phenomena, such as collisions or mergers of celestial bodies, supernova explosions, etc., can generate significant “mass-momentum field wave” due to the accelerated motion of massive celestial bodies. On September 14, 2015, LIGO observed “gravitational wave” signals (GW150914) generated by the collision and merger of two “black holes”, confirming the existence of gravitational waves[17], which is actually evidence of the existence of “mass-momentum field wave”. Although LIGO has discovered evidence of the existence of “mass-momentum field wave”, they lack proper theoretical guidance and the detection of “mass-momentum field wave” signals is very accidental. According to our theory, if a dynamic detector is used in the future, it may significantly increase the chance of detecting “mass-momentum field wave”.

Fifth, the mysteries of the source of cosmic energy and the quantization of microscopic particles have been uncovered. The current mainstream theory suggests that the main source of cosmic energy can be attributed to the Big Bang, which may have originated from the massive mass and energy of the singularity. These energies were released under unknown conditions, driving the expansion of the universe. Another viewpoint is that the Big Bang may have been a massive quantum fluctuation, utilizing the vacuum zero point energy in Quantum Field Theory to derive immense energy through the process of quantum fluctuations. However, attributing the origin of cosmic energy to singularities does not truly solve the problem of energy origin, but only shifts the problem to the singularities, where the laws of physics completely fail and cannot provide any scientific explanation. Similarly, although vacuum fluctuations in Quantum Field Theory provide a possible explanation, it does not fully reveal the true source of cosmic energy. Under the current scientific framework, we do not yet have a complete and convincing answer to explain the origin of cosmic energy. However, our theory not only unravels the mystery of the source of cosmic energy, but also the mystery of quantization of microscopic particles. According to our theory, the kinetic energy and radiation energy of objects in the universe essentially come from the combination between Yin and Yang elementary particles. It is precisely because the accelerated motion of charged particles can release radiation energy that their velocity can decrease to an equilibrium state where the centripetal force is exactly equal to the attractive force between the Yin-Yang particles, forming a stable “Yin-Yang particle pair” system (such as composite particles or atomic systems). We have revised the basic concept of “energy quantum” based on the generation mechanism of electromagnetic waves[4,5]. On this basis, we have revealed the physical mechanism of electronic transitions: electronic transitions are the acceleration or deceleration of electrons from one stationary orbit to another, during which they radiate or absorb electromagnetic energy (light quanta). This is a continuous motion process, not an instantaneous (without time), discontinuous or intermittent, indescribable ’jumping motion’. The so-called steady-state orbit refers to the orbit in which a particle rotates in a uniform circular motion or an elliptical motion with constant frequency. The radius, energy level, and angular momentum between stationary orbits have a certain integer multiple relationship, which is called quantization characteristic. This is a common feature of all “Yin-Yang particle pair systems” and is not a mysterious “quantum phenomenon” that cannot be explained by classical physics.

Sixth, the mysteries of the Big Bang, asymmetric matter, and accelerated expansion of the universe have been uncovered. Astronomical observational evidence such as galaxy redshift and microwave background radiation suggest that our universe experienced a Big Bang and that galaxies are currently accelerating away from us[2]. However, the Big Bang theory fails to explain the cause of the explosion, the existence of dark matter accounting for 84% of the universe’s total mass, the matter-antimatter asymmetry, and the accelerated expansion of the universe. Our Great Tao Model holds that elementary particles are the ultimate existence of the universe, thus avoiding the concept that the universe originated from a “singularity” explosion. In the Great Tao Model, we assume an initial state of the universe: the elementary particles are infinitely far apart and in a state of absolute stillness, resulting in density approaching zero, temperature approaching absolute zero degrees, and total energy of the universe approaching zero. Due to the fact that the three elementary particles of electrons, positrons, and particles cannot satisfy both uniform distribution in space and simultaneous force balance, they will eventually combine to form hydrogen molecules and antihydrogen molecules through interactions. Over long periods, these molecules gradually aggregate under gravitational forces to form massive primordial celestial bodies. Within these primordial bodies, RC reactions between hydrogen and anti-hydrogen molecules produce substons and neutrinos, releasing tremendous energy. This is the proposed cause of the “Big Bang”. Due to slight imbalances in the distribution of the three elementary particles in space, most hydrogen and anti-hydrogen molecules undergo RC reactions (“Big Bang”) to form substons and neutrinos, leaving only a small amount of normal matter (hydrogen molecules) or antimatter (anti-hydrogen molecules). Therefore, most of the universe’s matter consists of dark matter composed of substons, with the remainder being either normal matter or antimatter, explaining the matter-antimatter asymmetry in the universe. After the “Big Bang” of primordial celestial bodies, many Class I celestial bodies form, which then explode violently to produce Class II celestial bodies, and so on, leading to the formation of Class III celestial bodies. The hierarchical explosions of celestial bodies explain the formation and evolution of large-scale structures in the universe, such as superclusters, galaxy clusters, and galaxies. It also accounts for the increasing recession speeds of secondary celestial bodies. Furthermore, since there are multiple primordial celestial bodies in the universe, they evolve into multiple secondary universes. As these secondary universes continuously expand, the distance between their frontiers decreases, leading to increasing gravitational attraction between frontier galaxies. Consequently, the expansion of secondary universes accelerates. Therefore, the phenomenon of accelerated cosmic expansion can be explained without invoking the concept of dark energy, thereby resolving the dark energy problem.