Molecular dynamics simulations were performed to examine the impact of temperature (ranging from 250K to 350K) on the structural behavior of cellulose chains when dissolved in an aqueous cuprammonium hydroxide Cuam solvent system. By monitoring the root mean square deviation (RMSD) and radius of gyration (Rg) values at each temperature, we found that the geometric deformation of the cellulose chains changed significantly at T=300K. In contrast, Rg and RMSD values remained stable at temperatures in the range of 250K, 270K and the range of 330K, 350K. Calculating the interaction energy between the solvent and cellulose chains revealed that temperature significantly influences the cellulose dissolution process in the Cuam solvent system and that T=300K is an efficient temperature for its dissolution. The number of intra- and interchain hydrogen bonds was also calculated as a function of temperature, and the analysis confirmed that there is no breakage of these bonds at temperatures below 300 K (i,e: 250K, 270K) and above 310 K (I,e, : 330K and 350K) either between two native chains or between a native chain and another derivative.

In this study, we explored the structural and chemical modifications of cellulose fibres subjected to chemical and mechanical treatments through an innovative analytical approach. We employed photoacoustic spectroscopy (PAS) and reversed double-beam photoacoustic spectroscopy (RDB-PAS) to examine the morphological changes and the chemical integrity of the treated fibres. The methodology provided enhanced sensitivity and specificity in detecting subtle alterations in the treated cellulose structure. Additionally, we applied Coifman wavelet transformation to the PAS signals, which facilitated a refined analysis of the spectral features indicative of chemical and mechanical modifications at a molecular level. This advanced signal processing technique allowed for a detailed decomposition of the PAS signals, revealing hidden characteristics that are typically overshadowed in raw data analyses. Further, we utilized the concept of energy trap distribution to interpret the wavelet-transformed data, providing insights into the distribution and density of energy states within the fibres. Our results indicated significant differences in the energy trap spectra between untreated and treated fibres, reflecting the impact of chemical and mechanical treatments on the fibre’s physical properties. The combination of these sophisticated analytical techniques elucidated the complex interplay between mechanical and chemical treatments and their effects on the structural integrity and chemical composition of cellulose fibres.

This manuscript presents the result of utilizing cellulose as a template to prepare na-nosized WO3-NiWO4 and its application as co-catalysts in Pt/WO3-C and Pt/WO3-NiWO4-C for ethanol and glycerol electro-oxidation. Microcrystalline cellulose was hydrolyzed with phosphotungstic acid (H3PW12O40) to prepare the nanosized template of crystalline cellulose. Next, the template was impregnated with Ni(NO3)2, rendering a precursor mate-rial that is subsequently air-calcinated, removing the carbon-template material to obtain the nanometric WO3 and NiWO4. Elemental analysis confirmed the coexistence of nickel and tungsten, whereas the thermal analysis evidenced the high thermal stability of these materials. The X-ray diffractograms displayed crystal facets of WO3 and, when added Ni, of NiWO4. The transmission electron micrographs corroborated the formation of na-nosized particles with average particle sizes close to 50 nm. Finally, to apply this material, Pt/WO3-C and Pt/WO3-NiWO4-C were prepared and used in ethanol and glycerol electro-oxidation in alkaline medium, observing a promotional effect of the oxide and tungstate by reducing the onset potential and increasing the current density. These materials show great potential to produce clean electricity or green hydrogen contributing to energetic transition.

Alkenyl Succinic Anhydride (ASA) is a sizing agent used in papermaking to increase the water repellency of paper. Almost 60 years after the introduction of the chemical in papermaking, scientists still have differing views on how ASA interacts with cellulose. Several experiments were conducted to bring more clarity to the ASA sizing mechanism, especially on the contentious question of ASA-cellulose covalent bonding or the esterification reaction between ASA and cellulose during papermaking. Herein, research papers and patents, including experiments and results, from the1960’s to 2020 were reviewed. Our investigation revealed that the ester bond formation between ASA and cellulose is insignificant and is not a prerequisite for sizing effectiveness; the main ASA related material found in sized paper is hydrolyzed ASA or both hydrolyzed ASA and ASA salt. In addition, ASA emulsion stability and ASA emulsion retention are important for sizing efficiency improvement.

The success of composite materials is attributed to the nature of bonding at the nanoscale and the resulting structure-related properties. This study reports the interaction, electronic, and optical properties of diamond nanothread/polymers (cellulose and epoxy) and boron nitride nanotube/calcium silicate hydrate composites using density functional theory modeling. Our findings indicate that the interaction between the nanothread and polymer is due to van der Waals-type bonding. Minor modifications in the electronic structures and absorption spectra are noticed. Conversely, the boron nitride nanotube and calcium silicate hydrate composite display an electron-shared type of interaction. The electronic structure and optical absorption spectra of the diamond nanothread and boron nitride nanotube in all configurations studied in the aforementioned composite systems are well maintained. Our findings offer an electronic-level perspective into the bonding characteristics and electronic-optical properties of diamond nanothread/polymer and boron nitride nanotube/calcium silicate hydrate composites for developing next-generation materials.

The search for active cellulolytic consortia among soil microorganisms is of significant applied interest, while the dynamics of the formation of such communities remain insufficiently studied. To gain insight into the formation of an active cellulolytic community, the experiment was designed to study the colonization of a sterile substrate (cellulose) by microorganisms from two soil types: sod-podzolic and chernozem. To achieve this, the substrate was placed in the soil and incubated for six months. To assess microbiome dynamics, the experiment employed sequencing of 16S rRNA and ITS2 amplicon libraries at four-time points. It was demonstrated that from the second month of the experiment, the prokaryotic component of the communities reached a state of stability, with a community composition that was specific to each soil type. The results demonstrated that there was no relationship between changes in community diversity and soil respiration. There also was no significant shift in community diversity throughout the chronosequence. Furthermore, the taxonomic composition of the community shifted towards a decrease in the proportion of Proteobacteria and an increase in representatives of the Bacteroidota, Bacillota, and Verrucomicrobiota phyla. The network analysis of the community demonstrated that, in contrast to sod-podzolic soil, chernozem is distinguished by a higher modularity, with the formation of taxon-specific groups of microorganisms at each stage of the chronoseries. These differences are attributed to alterations in the eukaryotic component of the community, particularly in the prevalence of nematodes and predatory fungi, which in turn influenced the cellulolytic community.

Membranes are a selective barrier that allows certain species (molecules and ions) to pass through while blocking others. Some rely on size exclusion, where larger molecules get stuck while smaller ones permeate through. Others use differences in charge or polarity to attract and repel specific species. Membranes can be used to purify air and water by allowing only air and water molecules to pass through but preventing contaminants such as microorganisms and particles or to separate target gas or vapor, such as H2, CO₂, from other gases. The higher the flux and selectivity, the better a material is for membranes. The desirable performance can be tuned through material type (polymers, ceramics, and biobased materials), microstructure (porosity and tortuosity), and surface chemistry. Most membranes are made from plastic from petroleum-based resources, which contribute to global climate change and plastic pollution. Cellulose can be an alternative sustainable resource to make renewable membranes. Cellulose exists in plant cell walls as natural fibers, which can be broken down into smaller components such as cellulose fibrils, nanofibrils, nanocrystals, and cellulose macromolecules through mechanical and chemical processing. Membranes made from reassembling these particles and molecules have variable pore architecture, porosity, and separation properties and therefore have a wide range of applications in nano-, micro-, and ultrafiltration or forward osmosis. Despite their advantages, cellulose membranes face some challenges. Improving the selectivity of membranes for specific molecules often comes at the expense of permeability. The stability of cellulose membranes in harsh environments or under continuous operation needs further improvement. Research is ongoing to address these challenges and develop advanced cellulose membranes with enhanced performance. This article reviews the microstructure, fabrication methods, and potential applications of cellulose membranes, providing some critical insights into processing-structure-property relationships for current state-of-the-art cellulosic membranes that could be used to rationally improve their performance.

The application potential of cellulosic materials in natural composites and other fields needs to be explored to develop innovative, sustainable, lightweight, functional biomass materials that are also environmentally friendly. This study investigated Typha augostifolia (Typha sp.) as a potential new raw material for extracting cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) for application in wastewater treatment composites. Alkaline treatments and bleaching were used to remove cellulose from the stem fibers. The CNCs were then isolated from the recovered cellulose using acid hydrolysis. The study showed a few distinct functional groups (O-H, -C-H, =C-H and C-O, and C-O-C) in the Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectra. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) revealed the smooth surface of CPC and CNCs that resulted from removing lignin and hemicellulose from powdered Typha augostifolia. Based on the crystalline index, the powdered Typha augostifolia, CPC, and CNCs were 42.86%, 66.94% and 77.41%. The loss of the amorphous section of the Typha sp. fiber resulted in a decrease in particle size. It may be inferred from the features of a Typha sp. CNC that CNCs may be employed as reinforcement in composites for wastewater treatment.

There is considerable interest in cellulose solubilisation in deep eutectic solvents (DESs) as a new emerging class of green solvents. However, the experimental data have indicated that cellulose is almost insoluble in most of DESs. Carboxylic acid-based DESs are a category of DESs that exhibit a modest ability to solubilise cellulose. However, the molecular-level reasons why carboxylic acid-based DESs can dissolve cellulose are unknown. Such information is crucial in developing DESs with enhanced cellulose solubilising ability. Here, we use molecular dynamics simulations to explore the molecular mechanism of cellulose solubility in oxaline (choline chloride/oxalic acid) as a typical carboxylic acid-based DES and cellulose insolubility in reline (choline chloride/urea) as the most famous DES. It was revealed that oxalic acid possesses a greater ability to weaken the interaction between the chloride anion and the choline cation when compared to other urea in reline. Self-interactions of hydrogen bond donors are also highly attenuated in oxaline than in reline. These results explain the observed more significant melting point depression of oxaline in comparison to reline. We depict a molecular mechanism indicating how oxalic acid synergically works with chloride ion to dissolve cellulose and why urea cannot play such a role in reline.

The mortar’s composition, porosity, mechanical properties, entryways’ orientation, and condi-tioning status of the tunnels made by the Najdian Termite, Microtermes najdensis located at Hada Al-Sham village, Makkah Province, Saudi Arabia were studied. The most prevalent infected tim-ber trees by this pest were Tamarix aphylla, Pithecellobium duce, Zizyphus spina christi, Leucaena leu-cocephala, Ficus infectoria, and Phoenix dactylifera. Climate, soil, healthy wood (Wh), and termite nest skeleton (TNS) were the four components of the termite system that were investigated physi-cally, chemically, spectroscopically, and by FTIR, XRD, SEM, and TEM. It was noticed that the entryways of the termite nests are located at the southwest direction for all the infected trees studied at Hada Al-Sham village that promotes better ventilation. Concerning to the air-conditioning status within the their nest, the internal temperature (IT) was found to be milder than that for its analogous value for the outer temperature (OT) in which the IT was wormer than OT during cold durations, while it was colder than the hottest OT in hot days and vice versa. The IT’s trend had more constantancy with minor fluctuations compared to that for the OT. Moreo-ver, the IT was found to be tended to the upper OT’s limit otherwise its colder one. This finding means that these termite species prefer the hotter atmospheres comparing the colder circumstanc-es. Lignin is the prominent tracer of the organic matter used as a binder for the TNS due to its gluing ability, resistance to enzymatic degradation by the termites and their accompanied fungal community habituating the nests. The presence of both microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) and nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC) was discovered for the first time in the nest mortar reinforcing Klason lignin as the main binder. Their presence was proved by FTIR, XRD, SEM and TEM anal-yses and we satisfied that they were naturally-synthesized by the action of enzymatic hydrolysis excreted by the termites and their accompanied fungal community habituating the nests. The gross heat of combustion (GHCs) of the Wh and TNS were studied to try to find an important uti-lization of the infected woods as renewable energy resources instead of disposal them without economic benefits. These findings may be used for interpreting the durability of the termite nests to the different environmental stresses. Biomimicry of the termites’ nest from the perspective of its magic mortar with a suitable permeability, the entryways’ orientation, and the air-conditioning status can lead to modify the current construction’s designs to be more green and ecofriendly.

Primary materials supply is the heart for engineering and sciences; depletion of natural resources and an increase in the human population by a billion in 13 to 15 years pose a critical concern on the sustainability of the materials. Therefore, functionalizing renewable materials, such as nanocellulose, possibly exploiting its properties for various practical applications, has been undertaken worldwide. Nanocellulose has emerged as a dominant green natural material with attractive and tailorable physicochemical properties, renewable, sustainable, biocompatibility, and tunable surface properties. Nanocellulose is derived from cellulose, the most abundant polymer in nature with remarkable properties of nanomaterials. This article provides a comprehensive overview of the methods used for nanocellulose preparation, structure-property and processing-property correlations, and the application of nanocellulose and its nanocomposite materials. This article differentiates the classification of nanocellulose, provides a brief account of the production methods that have been developed for isolating nanocellulose, highlights a range of unique properties of nanocellulose that have been extracted from different kinds of experiments and studies; and elaborates on nanocellulose potential applications in various areas. The present review is anticipated to provide the readers regarding the progress and knowledge related to nanocellulose. Pushing the boundaries of nanocellulose further into cutting edge applications will be of particular interest for the future, especially as cost-effective commercial sources of nanocellulose continue to emerge.

Cellulose-based materials are now commonly used, including in the field of acoustic comfort. Often presented as a less environmentally impactful alternative to traditional acoustic absorbents (such as melamine, glass wool, etc.), these cellulose-based materials are more frequently derived from recycling, thus undergoing in most cases the technical process allowing these cellulose fibers to be obtained, thus inheriting the acoustic properties of the latter, with limited or even non-existent control. This paper proposes a manufacturing process that allows for the production of cellulose foam with precise control over its porosity, pore size, and interconnections. In addition to exhibiting remarkable sound absorption properties, this process also enables the fabrication of gradient porous structures and other hybrid materials that can result in remarkable sound absorption properties.

Hydrogen sulfide is present in active or extinct volcanic areas (mofettas). The habitable premises in these areas are affected by the presence of hydrogen sulfide, which, even in low concentrations, gives off a bad to unbearable smell. If the living spaces considered are closed enclosures, then a system can be designed to reduce the concentration of hydrogen sulfide. This paper presents a membrane way to reduce the hydrogen sulfide concentration to acceptable limits using a cellulosic derivative-propylene hollow fiber based composite membrane module. The cellulosic derivatives considered were carboxymethyl–cellulose (NaCMC), cellulose acetate (CA), methyl 2–hydroxyethyl–cellulose (MHEC), and 2–hydroxyethyl–cellulose (HEC). In the permeation module, hydrogen sulfide is captured with a solution of cadmium that forms cadmium sulfide, usable as a luminescent substance. The composite membranes were characterized by SEM, EDAX, FTIR, FTIR 2D maps, thermal analysis (TG and DSC) and from the perspective of hydrogen sulfide air removal performance. To determine the process performances, the variables were: the nature of the cellulosic derivative–polypropylene hollow fiber composite membrane, the concentration of hydrogen sulfide in the polluted air, the flow rate of polluted air, and the pH of the cadmium nitrate solution. Pertraction efficiency was maximum for the sodium carboxymethyl–cellulose (NaCMC)-polypropylene hollow fiber membrane, a hydrogen sulfide concentration in the polluted air of 20 ppm, polluted air flow rate of 50 L/min, and a pH of 2 and 4.

The current trends in environment protection and sustainable development demand the investigations in the field of searching new perspective sources for any production. Oat husks seems to be a perspective resource. Cellulose isolated from oat wastes can be used for the production of different materials such as hydro and aerogels, bacterial, nanocrystal and nanofibrillated cellulose, cellulose based composites and ethers. All these materials can be spent in different industries: production of pharmaceuticals, medicine (including targeted delivery of drugs, sponges etc.), agriculture (controlled delivery of pesticides or fertilizers), electronics, production of films, membranes, plastics, coatings, paints, biodegradable packages. In this review, we will demonstrate prospects for using oat husks to obtain cellulose and for obtaining materials based on the main oat husk polysaccharide. This review will evaluate the main achievements in this area. The analysis will allow a reader to form an analytical opinion about the prospects for using oat husks as a source for obtaining valuable products.

Air pollution is related to the development of people's livelihood. As one of the main pollutants in the air, formaldehyde affects people's physical and mental health. In order to remove formaldehyde and better protect the health of residents, it is very necessary to develop efficient adsorption materials. In this study, a cellulose composite aerogel Microcrystalline Cellulose/ N-(2- aminoethyl) -3- aminopropyl methyl dimethoxysilane (MCC/APMDS) modified by APMDS was explored. The pore volume and specific surface area of the modified aerogel decreased, the average pore diameter increased, and the adsorption capacity of formaldehyde was stronger. The adsorption experiment shows that the sample prepared under the conditions of APMDS dosage of 6 wt%, reaction time of 4 h and reaction temperature of 90℃ has the largest average pore size (14.56 nm) and the largest formaldehyde adsorption capacity (9.52 mg/g). The excellent adsorption of the composite aerogel is due to high porosity and rich active amino groups on the surface. This study provides valuable information for the preparation of adsorption materials with high formaldehyde adsorption capacity for air purification.

The pursuit of an environmentally sustainable manufacturing process advocates for the substitution of harmful reagents for less damaging and recyclable solutions. This study aims to assess the effectiveness of using cellulose microfibrils synthesized via different hydrolysis reactions as reinforcing agents in polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) at varying con-centrations. The investigation explores the morphology, thermal properties, and chemi-cal behavior of the cellulose particles. The cellulose microfibrils (CMF) produced using citric acid exhibited the highest yield and aspect ratio. Notably, particles from organic acids demonstrated greater thermal stability, with oxalic acid-derived particles displaying the maximum thermal degrada-tion temperature. Subsequently, cast films of PVA reinforced with the cellulose microfibrils underwent comprehensive analyses, including Fourier transfer infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, thermal degradation temperature (Td), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and tensile strength tests. The thermal behavior of cast films experienced notable changes with the addition of cellulose particles, evidenced by increased melting and crystallinity temperatures, along with a rise in the degree of crystallinity. The incorporation of cellulose particles led to a substantial improvement in mechanical properties. Films containing CMF dis-played higher Young’s modulus, and the sample incorporating 5% CMF derived from citric acid exhibited the most significant increase in modulus.

Mining-induced water contamination remains a significant concern in many regions of the world due to the high concentrations of toxic ions often associated with it. In this study, cellulose-supported ferrihydrite composites (CNF-Fe) were prepared by seeding of ferrihydrite nanoparticles on cellulose nanofibres (CNFs) and employed for the removal of As(III), As(V) and Cr(VI) from contaminated water. The adsorbent was characterized by electron microscopy, gas adsorption, point of zero charge (pH_PZC), X-ray diffractometry (XRD), as well as infrared and Raman spectroscopy. Compared to parent CNFs, CNF-Fe adsorbents had lower crystallinity and a higher surface area: 218.76 m² g^-1. Further, with a pH_PZC of 6.3, CNF-Fe was positively charged at low pH and suitable for adsorption of anions at acidic conditions characteristic of acid mine drainage. In single-ions solutions, the removal efficiency of CNF-Fe was in the order Cr(VI)>As(V)>As(III) (i.e. 0.15, 0.12 and 0.11 mg g^-1 respectively). Adsorption kinetics followed the pseudo second-order model and isotherms were best fitted by the Freundlich, Dubinin-Radushkevich, and Temkin models. However, when CNF-Fe was applied to AMD-contaminated water (pH 2.7), Cr(VI) uptake decreased to ~39% which was likely due to competition from sulphate and selenium ions. Nevertheless, the adsorbent displayed regeneration capabilities with ~98% As and ~45% Cr desorbed after 24 hours of treatment. Together, these results suggest that cellulose supported ferrihydrite composites can be applied in treatment of mine drainage-contaminated water in conjunction with pre-treatments that limit SO₄^2- and selenium concentrations.

Bacterial cellulose (BC) has emerged as a sustainable biomaterial with diverse industrial applications. This paper examines BC production through a circular economy framework, focusing on organic waste as a primary feedstock. It compares static and agitated cultivation methods for BC production, highlighting their advantages and limitations. Static cultivation using Gluconacetobacter xylinum yields high-quality cellulose films but is constrained by lower yields and longer incubation times. Agitated cultivation accelerates production but may affect fiber uniformity. The paper emphasizes sustainability by exploring organic waste materials such as coffee grounds, tea leaves, and food scraps as cost-effective nitrogen and carbon sources. These materials not only lower production costs but also support circular economy principles by converting waste into valuable products. BC produced from these waste sources retains key properties, making it suitable for applications in the textile and other industries. In addition, BC production can align with vegan principles, provided that all additives and processing methods are free of animal-derived components. The paper discusses BC’s potential to replace synthetic fibers in textiles and reduce environmental impact. Case studies show successful BC integration into textile products. In conclusion, the paper calls for more research to optimize BC production processes and explore new industrial applications. Using organic waste in BC production can help industries adopt sustainable practices, reduce environmental footprints, and create high-value materials.

The tailoring of the surface properties of cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) to meet various requirements in environmental, food, and material areas has always been of great interest. In this study, the surface chemistry of CNCs was noncovalently modified by cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), followed by characterizations and an application as a coating material for interfacial interaction investigation over various substrates. Due to the CTAB modification, the surface charge of the CNCs was neutralized, resulting in an increased size of each nanocrystal at the aqueous status and the aggregated microfibers when dried up. The CTAB modification not only decreased the crystallinity of the samples from 48.57% to 9.12% but also hydrophobized the CNCs and decreased their total surface energy. Finally, the adsorption behavior of the CNCs and CTAB-CNCs over nonionic, anionic, and cationic polymers was investigated by ellipsometry. Based on the thickness of the CNC and CTAB-CNC layers over 2-Hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), and polyethyleneimine (PEI), we proposed that the adsorption behavior was overall influenced by electrostatic interaction, hydrogen bonding, and van der Waals forces and the thickness of the adsorbed layers could be impacted by both the surface charge and the size of the crystals.

For the effective utilization of rice husk, organosolv fractionation was investigated to separate three main components (glucan, xylose, and lignin) with low acid concentration. Reaction temperatures of 170–190 °C, ethanol concentrations of 50–70% (v/v), and sulfuric acid concentrations of 0–0.7% (w/v) were investigated, with the reaction time and liquid-to-solid ratio kept constant at 60 min and 10, respectively. The fractionation conditions for the efficient separation into the three components of rice husk were determined to be 180 °C, 60% (v/v) of ethanol, and 0.25% (w/v) of sulfuric acid. Under these fractionation conditions, 86.8% of the xylan and 77.5% of the lignin were removed from the rice husk, and xylose and lignin were obtained from the liquid in 67.6% and 49.8% yields, respectively. The glucan digestibility of the fractionated rice husk was 85.2% with an enzyme loading of 15 FPU (filter paper unit) of cellulase per g-glucan.

Additive manufacturing, commonly referred to as 3D printing, is an exciting and versatile manufacturing technology that is gaining traction and interest in both academic and industrial settings. Polymeric materials are essential components in a majority of the “inks” used across the various 3D printing technologies. As the environmental ramifications of sole or primary reliance on petrochemicals as a resource for industrial polymers continue to manifest themselves at a global scale, a transition to more sustainable bioderived alternatives could offer solutions. In particular, cellulose is promising due to its global abundance, biodegradability, excellent thermal and mechanical properties, and ability to be chemically modified to suit various applications. Thus far, cellulose has typically been incorporated in additive manufacturing applications as a substrate, filler, or reinforcement for other materials. However, due to its versatility and desirable properties, the exploration of all-cellulose 3D printing materials and associated methodologies is increasing. This review will discuss the progress and status of all-cellulose 3D printing approaches, associated challenges, and their potential as a key player in a more sustainable industrial future.

To obtain a cost-effective and high-performance composite material of polybutylene adipate-terephthalate (PBAT), for this study we selected microcrystalline cellulose, which is inexpensive and easily available, as the reinforcing medium. Hexadecyl trimethoxysilane (HDTMS) containing a long carbon chain was chosen to silanize the microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) to obtain silanized cellulose (SG). Three types of SGs with different degrees of silanization were obtained by controlling the reaction ratio. Characterization of these three types of SGs was conducted using FTIR, TEM, and water absorption analysis. Subsequently, PBAT/SG composites were prepared through a sol-gel method, and the effects of these three types of SGs on the thermal stability, compatibility, mechanical properties, and dynamic thermomechanical properties of PBAT were evaluated. Furthermore, the mechanism behind enhancing the mechanical properties of the composite was analyzed. The results demonstrated successful synthesis of SG. As the reaction ratio between HDTMS and MCC increased, the nanoparticle size increased, while the water absorption decreased significantly. After SG was added to the PBAT composites, the yield stress increased while maintaining good thermal stability. Both the SEM and DMA results indicated good compatibility of the PBAT/SG composites. Analysis of the mechanical properties revealed that the tensile strength initially increased and then decreased with increasing blending ratio for all three composites tested; among them, the PBAT/SG2 composites exhibit superior performance, with a maximum tensile strength reaching 22 MPa at an 85/15 blending ratio—nearly 30% higher than that of pure PBAT alone. The addition of SG significantly improved the strength of the PBAT, and we speculated as to the underlying mechanism involved. This study provides a new idea for the industrial-scale development of degradable polyesters with low cost and good mechanical properties.

CMC/PVA composite nanofiber membrane was prepared by electrostatic spinning method, using carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) as raw materials and glutaraldehyde as cross-linking agent. The structure, morphology, thermal stability, and filtration performance of CMC/PVA nanofiber membranes were characterized by advanced instrumental analysis methods such as scanning electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, ultraviolet analysis and energy spectrum analysis. The results show that the average fiber diameter decreases from 381 nm to 183 nm, when the spinning voltage is 23 KV and the jet speed is 2 µL/min. The obtained fiber has the smallest particle size and the most uniform distribution. Infrared spectroscopy analysis confirms that the adsorption behavior of nanofiber membranes on Cu2+ and Cr6+ is chemical adsorption. The retention rates of CMC/PVA nanofiber membranes for Cu2+ and Cr6+ reached 97% and 98%, respectively.

It is important to add second- or third-phase materials to improve the physical, mechanical, and biodegradable properties of polypropylene (PP) nanocomposites. A unique hybrid bio-nanocomposite was fabricated using microparticle cellulose powder from wastepaper with a polypropylene (PP) polymeric matrix using a low-shear chaotic mixing method. A small amount (2-5%) of layered micro clay was also added to investigate the hybrid effect of nanocomposite fabrication on the mechanical properties. A low-shear chaotic melt mixing method induces the formation of nano cellulose structures and layered clay nanoparticles by via exfoliation. The nanoparticles were characterized using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. Mechanical properties such as the flexural strength (FS) and tensile strength (TS) were investigated using an Izod impact tester (IZ), and a dynamic mechanical testing analyzer (DMTA). Further, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to observe the microstructure of the nanocomposite. In addition, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) were conducted to investigate the crystallinity and degradation of the samples, respectively. The addition of wastepaper cellulose powder below 2.5 wt. % did not improve the mechanical properties, however, improvements were observed when more than 5wt.% wastepaper cellulose powder was added. With the addition of a small amount of nano-clay, the mechanical properties were significantly improved, and a synergistic effect could be noticed. The observed results were then compared with PP-clay nanocomposites used in automotive industries to replace cellulose nanocomposites. The application areas can also cover lead production in paper cups and vacuum foaming.

It is important to add second- or third-phase materials to improve the physical, mechanical, and biodegradable properties of polypropylene (PP) nanocomposites. A unique hybrid bio-nanocomposite was fabricated using microparticle cellulose powder from wastepaper with a polypropylene (PP) polymeric matrix using a low-shear chaotic mixing method. A small amount (2-5%) of layered micro clay was also added to investigate the hybrid effect of nanocomposite fabrication on the mechanical properties. A low-shear chaotic melt mixing method induces the formation of nano cellulose structures and layered clay nanoparticles by via exfoliation. The nanoparticles were characterized using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. Mechanical properties such as the flexural strength (FS) and tensile strength (TS) were investigated using an Izod impact tester (IZ), and a dynamic mechanical testing analyzer (DMTA). Further, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to observe the microstructure of the nanocomposite. In addition, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) were conducted to investigate the crystallinity and degradation of the samples, respectively. The addition of wastepaper cellulose powder below 2.5 wt. % did not improve the mechanical properties, however, improvements were observed when more than 5wt.% wastepaper cellulose powder was added. With the addition of a small amount of nano-clay, the mechanical properties were significantly improved, and a synergistic effect could be noticed. The observed results were then compared with PP-clay nanocomposites used in automotive industries to replace cellulose nanocomposites. The application areas can also cover lead production in paper cups and vacuum foaming.

Cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) are a kind of nano-inclusions that have experienced tremendous expansion in the material industry due to their outstanding mechanical qualities, sizable surface area, and capacity for functional tuning. Due to their vast potential, however, present practises fall short of fully using them. For example, employing CNCs in various matrices with various surface chemistries can be challenging; this problem tends to get worse if the focus is furthered on bio-based applications. This paper reviews the use of CNCs as fillers in natural and man-made polymers; we have explored in depth the production, characterisation, and of CNCs from various sources and their inclusion into various matrices. Surface alterations and the introduction of CNCs in biodegradable polymer can have a significant impact on several industrial behemoths such as tissue engineering and biomedical applications; therefore, pursue of current manuscript is extremely warranted. Throughout the manuscript various assembly techniques that involves alteration and adjustment of polymer network in building up a hydrogel with higher fracture energy and mechanical properties are also included. From rheological perspective the hydrogel processing is also discussed with some models routinely used in the literature to describe these hydrogels. Finally, bio-based hydrogels mechanically reinforced with CNCs such as Xanthan Gum, Alginate, protein, and polysaccharides were discussed.

This works is related to the modeling of cellulose pyrolysis with a pseudo equilibrium approach. The objective is to model the kinetics of the cellulose pyrolysis with a semi-global mechanism obtained from the literature, in order to obtain the yield and the rate of formation of char. The pseudo equilibrium sense consists in the supposition that the solid phase devolatilization can be described kinetically - at finite rate - , preserving the competitive characteristic between the production of char and tar, while the gas phase can be described by means of chemical equilibrium. A set of ordinary, linear and non linear, differential equations was obtained and solved numerically with a simple but consistent scheme using the Totally Implicit Euler method. Chemical equilibrium was solved using CANTERA coupled with a code written in Matlab. Results showed that the scheme preserve the tar-gas competitive characteristic for cellulose pyrolysis. The gas phase, is defined as a mixture of CO₂, CO, H₂O, CH₄, H₂ and N₂ showed similarly composition compared with models from literature. Finally, the extension of the model to biomass in general, is straightforward, in order to include the hemicellulose and lignin.

Nisin is a 3.4 kDa antimicrobial peptide, produced by Lactococcus lactis (ATCC 11454). This bacteriocin can inhibit spores gemination and gram-positive bacteria development and has gained visibility in therapeutic use. The bacterial cellulose (CB) has been considered an ideal material and with high quality applied in food and medical-pharmaceutical inputs. Because of all this benefits, it is important to know the system proceeding of CB with nisin. Therefore, it was realize nisin release profile analysis of CBs was performed; analysis of the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of nisin against Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, Pseudomonas aeuroginosa ATCC 9721 and Staphylococus aureus ATCC 10390; antimicrobial stability test, for 100 days at different temperatures of 4º, 25º and 37 ° C against microorganisms: S. aureus e L. sakei. The results show that nisin is released by the CB in 4 hours of contact with medium and the MIC of nisin is 78 µg/mL for S. aureus, doesn’t have gram-negative inhibition. It had stability until 100 days against L. sakei and 60 days for S. aureus. The system proved to be efficient and CB potentiated the antimicrobial action of nisin, acting as a selective barrier for other compounds present in the standard solution, serving as protection of the peptide at different temperatures. The CB loading system can be an ideal antimicrobial stability system for nisin.

The thermal properties of novel nanomaterials play a significant role in determining the performance of the material in technological applications. Herein, direct measurement of the temperature diffusivity of cellulose nanocomposite films was carried out by the micro-contact method. Polymer films containing up to 2%wt. of nanocellulose were synthesised by a simple chemical process. Films of a high optical transmittance T ≈ 80 % (for a 200- μ m-thick film), which were up to 44% crystalline, were characterised. Two different modalities of temperature diffusivity based on: 1) a resistance change and 2) micro-thermocouple detected modulation of a heat wave, were used for the polymer films with cross-sections of ∼ 100 μ m thickness. Twice different in-plane α ‖ and out-of-plane α ⊥ temperature diffusivities were directly determined with high fidelity: α ‖ = 2 . 12 × 10 − 7 m 2 /s and α ⊥ = 1 . 13 × 10 − 7 m 2 /s. An amorphous polyethylene terephthalate (PET) fiber was measured for comparison α ‖ = 1 . 15 × 10 − 7 m 2 /s. This work provides an example of a direct contact measurement of thermal properties of nanocellulose composite films. The thermal diffusivity, which is usually high in strongly interconnected networks and crystals, was investigated for the first time in this composite.

Carbohydrate composition of lignocellulosic biomass is one of the main factors for production of biofuel from the plant biomass. Various methods like Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), near infrared spectroscopy (NIR) often used in determination of polysaccharide component of the plant biomass. However, used of such tools is based on the prediction and very costly. This paper discussed about the determination of carbohydrate composition (cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin) using the automatic fibre estimation system. The protocol was developed for the estimation of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin component of lignocellulosic biomass. This protocol explains a simple method to estimate the polysaccharide component of lignocellulosic biomass. This protocol can be used not only lignocellulosic biomass but also for other hardwood biomass. The advantages and techniques, procedures are presented below.

This study reports on the development of bio-based hydrophobic coatings for packaging papers through deposition of polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) particles in combination with nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC) and plant wax. In a first approach, PHB particles in micrometer range (PHB-MP) were prepared through a phase-separation technique providing internally nanosized structures. The particles were transferred as a coating by dip-coating filter papers in the particle suspension, followed by sizing with a carnauba wax solution. This approach allowed partial to almost full surface coverage of PHB-MP over the paper surface resulting in static water contact angles of 105° to 122° and 129° to 144° after additional wax coating. In a second approach, PHB particles with submicron sizes (PHB-SP) were synthesized by an oil-in-emulsion (o/w) solvent evaporation method, and mixed in aqueous suspensions with 0 to 7 wt% NFC. After dip-coating filter papers in PHB-SP/NFC suspensions and sizing with a carnauba wax solution, static water contact angles of 112° to 152° were obtained. The intrinsic properties of the particles were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy, thermal analysis and infrared spectroscopy, indicating higher crystallinity for PHB-SP than PHB-MP. The chemical interactions between the more amorphous PHB-MP particles and paper fibers were identified as an esterification reaction, while the morphology of the NFC fibrillar network was playing a key role as binding agent in the retention of more crystalline PHB-SP at the paper surface, hence contributing to higher hydrophobicity.

Cellulose nanocrystals are of major research interest because of their use in biodegradable bioplastcs and food packaging, biomaterials, medical and pharmaceutical applications, cosmetics, electronics, and construction materials. This study introduces an approach combining microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) of cellulose from Aloe Vera plant residue and subsequent isolation of cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) utilizing sulfuric acid hydrolysis. The MAE process, characterized by its rapid heating and penetrating ability, was optimized to maximize cellulose yield from raw biomass sources under various conditions (microwave power, solvent ratio, and time). Following extraction, the purified cellulose was subjected to sulfuric acid hydrolysis under controlled conditions to yield CNCs, with the aim of preserving the intrinsic crystalline structure while enhancing the material's physicochemical properties. The search for biocompatible and biodegradable materials suitable for biomedical applications has led to significant interest in hydrogels composed of natural polymers. Among these, hydrogels synthesized from cellulose and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) have emerged as promising candidates due to their unique physical properties and compatibility with biological tissues. This study presents the formulation, characterization, and potential biomedical applications of a cellulose/PVA hydrogel. The hydrogel was synthesized to enable the formation of a semi-crystalline network that imparts the material with enhanced mechanical properties.

Our environment has been significantly impacted by man-made pollutants, primarily due to industries make substantial use of synthetic chemicals, resulting in significant environmental consequences. In this research investigation, the co-precipitation approach was employed for the synthesis of cellulose-based ferric oxide (Fe₂O₃/cellulose) and copper oxide nanoparticles (CuOx-NPs). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analyses were conducted to determine the properties of the newly synthesised nanoparticles. Furthermore, the synthesized nanoparticles were employed for eliminating chromium from aqueous media under various conditions, including temperature, contact time, adsorbent concentration, adsorbate concentration, and pH. Additionally, the synthesised materials were used to recover Cr(VI) ions from real samples, including tap water, seawater, and industrial water, and the adsorptive capacity of both materials evaluated under optimal conditions. The synthesis of Fe₂O₃/cellulose and CuOx-NPs proved to be effective, as indicated by the outcomes of the study.

New asphalt mixtures have been improved by using fibers (polypropylene, polyester, asbestos, carbon, glass, nylon, lignin, coconut, sisal, recycled rubber, PET, wood, bamboo and cellulose), reducing the temperature and compaction energy for their collocation, minimizing the impact on the environment, increasing the tenacity and resistance to cracking of hot mix asphalt (HMA), preventing asphalt drainage in a Stone Mastic Asphalt (SMA). Hence, this paper aims to evaluate the influence of the chemical (lignin content, ash, viscosity, degree of polymerization and elemental analysis), morphological (SEM), spectroscopic (FTIR-ATR and XRD) and calorimetric (ATG and DSC) properties of celluloses from bagasse Agave tequilana Weber var. Azul (ABP), corrugated paperboard (CPB) and commercial cellulose fiber (CC) as Schellenberg drainage (D) inhibitors of the SMA. The ABP was obtained through a chemical process by alkaline cooking, while CPB by a mechanical refining process. The chemical, morphological, spectroscopic and calorimetric properties were similar among the analyzed celluloses, but CPB and ABP cellulose are excellent alternatives to CC cellulose for inhibiting drainage. However, CPB is the most effective at low concentrations. This is attributed to its morphology, which includes roughness, waviness, filament length, orientation and diameter, as well as its lignin content and crystallinity.

Chronic wounds remain a major challenge in healthcare, with conventional dressings often leading to infections and lacking advanced healing capabilities. This study evaluated the wound healing potential of NIMO-CH, a cellulose hydrogel derived from nipa fronds and enriched with indigenous microorganisms, particularly Lacticaseibacillus paracasei BCRC-16100. Using ICR mice with excisional wounds, three treatments were compared: no treatment, NIMO-CH, and DuoDERM. Results showed that NIMO-CH and DuoDERM both achieved 100% wound closure, with NIMO-CH-treated wounds showing complete healing with hair growth by day 18-20, while untreated wounds healed by day 20. Minimal scarring was observed in both NIMO-CH and DuoDERM groups. Histological analysis confirmed similar healing processes, including granulation tissue formation and moderate inflammatory responses, with no significant differences in collagen fiber orientation. Furthermore, genome sequencing revealed that Lacticaseibacillus paracasei BCRC-16100 contained genes sodA and gsiC, responsible for coding enzymes necessary for the wound healing process. These results suggest that NIMO-CH could be an effective alternative for wound care applications.

Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) can act as a nonpermeating cryoprotectant, reducing the toxicity of glycerol. The dog spermatozoa were diluted and frozen in freezing extender supplemented with 0 (control), 0.1, 0.25, 0.5, or 0.75 % (w/v) CMC. Post-thaw, the sperm kinematic parameters (CASA), viability (SYBR-14/PI), and acrosome integrity (FITC-PSA) were evaluated. The expression of genes related to apoptosis (BCL2, BAX, and ANAXA), motility (BACTIN), cold shock proteins (YBX3), and ROS (CAT, ROMO1, and SMOX) was evaluated using qPCR. The total motility was higher in the 0.1 % CMC group compared to the other groups (p<0.05). In addition, the expression of the antiapoptotic gene BCL2 was upregulated in 0.1 % CMC group compared to the control, whereas the gene expression of BAX and SMOX exhibited lower levels in 0.1 and 0.25 % CMC groups than the control group (p<0.05). The expression of YBX3 genes was significantly decreased with 0.25 % CMC supplementation. No significant differences were found in viability, acrosome integrity, or the relative expression of ANAXA, BACTIN, CAT, and ROMO1 genes between the groups. In conclusion, the addition of CMC to a freezing extender improved sperm motility and alleviated cryostress by regulating the gene expression of BCL2, BAX, SMOX, and YBX3.

One of the main challenges in the treatment of industrial wastewater is the removal of oil-in-water emulsions, which are stable and therefore difficult to treat. Bacterial cellulose (BC) has structural characteristics that make it an ideal filtration membrane. The present study investigated the effectiveness of a BC membrane filtration system for the treatment of oily industrial wastewaters. The results demonstrated that BC is highly effective at removing oily contaminants (~99%), reducing the colour and particulate matter of wastewater, as well as eliminating nearly the entire microbiological load (~99%). SEM, MEV, FTIR, XRD, and TGA demonstrated the presence of oil in the interior of the membrane after filtration, characteristic peaks of its chemical composition, and a 40% reduction in crystallinity. TGA revealed an increase from three (pre-filtration) to five (post-filtration) stages of thermal degradation, indicating the retention of the contaminant in the BC. The mechanical tests demonstrated that the membrane has tensile strength of 72.13 ± 8.22 MPa and tolerated elongation of up to 21.11 ± 4.81% prior to tearing. The BC membrane also exhibited excellent flexibility, as it could be folded &gt; 100 times at the same point without exhibiting signs of tearing. The BC surpasses traditional methods, such as activated charcoal and effluent treatment stations, in the removal of emulsified oils. The findings demonstrate that BC is promising for the treatment of industrial wastewaters, which is a field that requires continual technological innovations to mitigate the environmental impacts of the oil industry.

We evaluated the macroscopic and histopathological aspects of skin healing by secondary intention in equine wounds, surgically induced and topically treated with bacterial cellulose hydrogel with alginate (BCAG) or frog skin (FSG), compared with ringer lactate (CG). Three wounds were created on each side of the lumbar region, one side for gross evaluation with photos and measurement of the area and contraction rate and the other for histopathological evaluation, with the sides selected randomly, in 5 horses. All wounds received daily treatment, and clinical and histopathological evaluations were conducted on postoperative days 0, 3, 7, 14, 21, and 28. Although no statistical differences were observed, the BCAG presented a reduced wound area and a high wound contraction percentage on days 14 and 21. At 28 days, the average contraction rates were 96.08%, 92.87%, and 88.6% for the CG, BCAG, and FSG, respectively. Although there was no statistical difference between the groups in wound healing in this study in horses, in clinical evaluations an early start of filling the area of the wounds treated with frog skin was observed, and on D14 and D21, a smaller area and higher contraction rate were observed in BCAG, which can be attributed to more efficient re-epithelialization and fibroblast proliferation.

The contamination of aquatic environments by pharmaceutical products consistently takes the attention of researchers due to the compounds' toxicity even at low concentrations. In response, we have developed an ecologically sustainable biosurfactant derived from a microorganism and incorporated into the bacterial cellulose. This bioproduct, along with the bacterial cellulose itself, was employed as a sorbent for pharmaceuticals (hormones and paracetamol) present in water. Bacterial cellulose membranes were generated through the cultivation of Gluconacetobacter xylinus ATCC 53582. The biosurfactant was produced by pre-inoculating Bacillus subtilis in a synthetic medium, followed by immersing the bacterial cellulose membranes in the biosurfactant solution, for incorporation. Tests were conducted using water experimentally contaminated with parace-tamol and 17α-ethinylestradiol (EE2), evaluating the biosurfactant's effect on bacterial cellulose sorption. Paracetamol levels were analyzed using spectrophotometry, and EE2 levels were as-sessed using high-performance liquid chromatography. In summary, bacterial cellulose exhibited superior adsorption for EE2 compared to paracetamol. The incorporation of biosurfactant onto bacterial cellulose reduced hormone adsorption but enhanced paracetamol sorption. Our findings indicated that adsorption is more effective with bacterial cellulose in its original and freeze-dried forms, without the incorporation of biosurfactant. Notably, we achieved more promising results in remediating the hormone EE2 compared to the paracetamol.

Cellulose-based carbon (CBC) has been widely concerned with its porous structure, high specific surface area, and is liable to adsorb gas molecules and macromolecular pollutants. However, the application of CBC in gas sensing has been little studied. In this paper, ZnO/CBC heterojunction was formed by means of simple co-precipitation and high temperature carbonization. As a new ammonia sensor, the prepared ZnO/CBC sensor can detect ammonia compared with that of the previous pure ZnO ammonia sensor can not at room temperature. It has great gas sensing response, stability and selectivity to ammonia concentration at 200 ppm. This study provides a new idea for the design and synthesis of biomass carbon-metal oxide composites.

Dentifrice performance in the removal of dental plaque is influenced by the interactions of dentifrice components with tooth surfaces. This randomized controlled clinical study assessed the effectiveness and safety of a novel fluoride dentifrice formulation that included a micro-fibrillated cellulose network with entangled microcrystalline cellulose and silica particles (ProtegeraTM), and compared this to a positive control fluoride dentifrice (Crest Cavity Protection™). Whole mouth dental plaque levels in 82 healthy adults were measured after the first supervised use, and following a week of twice daily use at home. Overall, the novel dentifrice was at least three times more effective in whole mouth plaque reductions than the reference dentifrice (p < 0.001), with a 38.6% reduction on first use, a 30.9% reduction at day 7, and a 41.6% reduction from day 1 to day 7, compared to reductions of 12.0%, 9.6%, and 11.6% respectively for the positive control. No safety issues arose from the use of the novel dentifrice. These results indicate that including micro-fibrillated cellulose enhances plaque removal effectiveness, without causing adverse changes to oral soft tissues.

This manuscript investigates the dispersion of cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) treated cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) in polypropylene (PP) by melt mixing. FTIR spectra of CTAB-modified CNCs and unmodified CNCs in a PP matrix were used to evaluate the surface treatments. The surface energies and morphologies of CTAB surface modified CNCs in polypropylene (PP) were used to interpret the effects of nanoparticle dispersion on the crystallization and rheological and mechanical properties of the PP matrix.

Yerba mate waste (YMW) were used to produce kombucha beverage, and the obtained microbial cellulose produced as by product (KMW) was used to reinforce mechanically recycled poly(lactic acid) (r-PLA) matrix. Microbial cellulosic particles were also produced in pristine yerba mate for comparison (KMN). To simulate the revalorization of industrial PLA products rejected during the production line, PLA was subjected to three extrusion cycles and the resultant pellets (r3-PLA) were then plasticized with 15 wt.% of acetyl tributyl citrate ester (ATBC) to obtain optically transparent and flexible films by solvent casting method. The plasticized r3-PLA-ATBC matrix was then loaded with KMW and KMN in 1 and 3 wt.%. The use of plasticizer allowed a good dispersion of microbial cellulose particles into the r3-PLA matrix, allowing to obtain flexible and transparent films which showed good structural and mechanical performance. Additionally, the obtained films showed antioxidant properties, as it was proven by release analyses conducted in direct contact with a fatty food simulant. The results suggest the potential interest of these recycled and biobased materials that are obtained from the revalorization of food waste for their industrial application in food packaging or agricultural films.

The cellulose/GO networks as the scaffold of free-standing aerogel electrodes are developed by using lithium bromide aqueous solution as the solvent to ensure the complete dissolution of cotton linter pulp and well dispersion/reduction of GO nanosheets. PANI nanoclusters are then coated onto cellulose/GO networks via in-situ polymerization of aniline monomers. By optimized weight ratio of GO and PANI, the ternary cellulose/GO3.5/PANI aerogel film exhibits well-defined three-dimensional porous structures and high conductivity of 1.15 S/cm that contributes to its high areal specific capacitance of 1218 mF/cm2 at the current density of 1.0 mA/cm2. Utilizing this cellulose/GO3.5/PANI aerogel film as electrodes in a symmetric configuration supercapacitor can result in an outstanding energy density as high as 258.2 μWh/cm2 at a power density of 1201.4 μW/cm2. Moreover, the device can maintain nearly constant capacitance under different bending deformations, suggesting its promising applications in flexible electronics.

Nowadays, the growing concern about improving thermal comfort in textiles, asphalt pavements and buildings has stimulated research into phase change materials (PCMs). However, the incorporation of PCMs directly causes mechanical impacts. Therefore, this study herein reported focuses on designing coaxial phase change fibres using commercial cellulose acetate (CA) or recycled CA obtained from cotton fabrics (CAt) as a coating and polyethylene glycol (PEG) 2000 as a core. The phase change fibres (PCF) were produced by wet spinning, varying the parameters: (i) CA concentration, molecular weight and source (virgin versus recycled); and (ii) PEG concentration and ejection. For phase change recycled fibres (PCFt), PEG concentration and ejection were varied. The fibres were assessed for their optical, chemical, thermal and mechanical properties. Bright-field microscopy images and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) micrographs proved the coaxial structure. Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) confirmed the presence of PEG in the core. Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) proved the ability of PCFs to tolerate high temperatures. Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) attested to the presence of PEG2000 peaks, since their melting points were close to those of virgin PEG2000, with a slight change in the PCFs and PCFts caused by the protective sheath of CA and CAt.

Objectives: This study assessed the performance of a novel fluoride dentifrice containing micro- fibrillated cellulose (MFC) and 7% silica (Protegera™) versus common fluoride dentifrices. Methods: Removal of extrinsic stains was assessed using the pellicle cleaning ratio (PCR) method, and radioactive dentin abrasivity (RDA) was measured, to calculate a cleaning efficiency index (CEI). Fluoride efficacy was evaluated using widely used remineralization and fluoride uptake methods. Results: The MFC dentifrice removed stained pellicle significantly more effectively than the ADA reference material, Crest Cavity Protection™ and Sensodyne Pronamel™, and had equal performance to three known marketed stain-removing dentifrices (Arm & Hammer™ Advanced Whitening, Crest ProHealth™, and Colgate Optic White™). The MFC dentifrice vehicle had a low RDA (88), which was significantly less than Crest ProHealth (166) and Crest 3D-White™ (183). Based on PCR and RDA data, the CEI was 31% greater for the MFC product than for Crest ProHealth. In a 10-day pH cycling study, the fluoride efficacy of the MFC product was superior to a non-fluoridated control and was not significantly different from Sensodyne Pronamel and Crest Cavity Protection. The MFC dentifrice was superior for promoting fluoride uptake into incipient enamel lesions than the USP reference dentifrice. Conclusion: The low dentin abrasivity MFC dentifrice is highly effective in removing stained pellicle, and is an efficacious fluoride source when compared to other relevant commercially available fluoride dentifrices with high dentin abrasivity. Clinical Significance: Including micro-fibrillated cellulose into a fluoride dentifrice may enhance cleaning performance for the removal of external stain, while lowering abrasivity, and providing an effective fluoride source. This combination of benefits seems well suited to enamel protection and caries prevention.

In this study a material based on Polyethylene (PE) and Microcrystalline Cellulose (MC) was developed as a breathable packaging film. Surface functionalization of MC with 3 aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES) shows to be an efficient alternative to tailor their properties and increase opportunities for the application of MC on the reinforcement of polymers such polyethylene (PE). Functionalization of MC with mentioned silane derivative was achieved using a green method and later used on the development of composites with PE in three percentages (1, 3 and 5%). All the materials were prepared by melt blending and characterized, in terms of structural properties (ATR-FTIR and FTIR in transmittance, EDX, SEM), thermal properties (DSC and TGA), thermomechanical properties (DMA), contact angle measurements and permeability to oxygen and water vapor. The materials demonstrated to have potential to be used as breathable film packaging of fresh products.

This study aimed to investigate the characteristics of composite scaffolds in combination of fibroin and carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) in bone tissue engineering. Fibroin is a useful biomaterial and is a major component of silk yarns composed of fibrous proteins. Improving for binding efficiency in bone formation after implanted scaffold, CMC was added to fibroin. CMC could improve injectable characters in bone substitutes by adding in scaffold material, fibroin. The porous shapes, porosity, surface wettability, water absorption, and thermal properties of the CMC added fibroin scaffold were better than fibroin only scaffold. For tissue engineering of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs), BMSCs isolated from mice were seeded onto the scaffold, and the cell proliferation rate was measured. alkaline phosphatase activity in BMSCs was higher in the scaffold containing CMC than that in the scaffold containing fibroin alone. The expression levels of osteocyte marker genes and proteins were increased in the CMC scaffold. The biocompatibility and hydrophilicity of CMC scaffolds play important roles in the growth and proliferation of osteocytes. Furthermore, the CMC scaffold design proposed in this study could play an important role in facilitating cartilage, ossification, and nerve differentiation of BMSCs.

Considering the current energy environment, both efficient and environmentally friendly solutions have to be developed for building construction. Bio-based building materials offer new perspectives through their insulating and natural humidity regulation capacities. Nevertheless, these materials are as complex as they are promising and grey areas still remain regarding their behavior. Their water sorption and desorption curves recorded in experimental work demonstrate a hysteresis phenomenon and, although plausible hypotheses have been formulated in the literature, there is currently no consensus on its causes. Furthermore, it is important to emphasize that no reference considers the hydrophilic nature of the resource. Yet this is a specificity of raw material coming from the plant world. In this context, this paper explores the microstructure and chemical composition of plant aggregates to propose a new explanation for the hysteresis. It is based on recent work demonstrating the existence of differentiated hydrogen bonds between the water sorption and desorption phase in cellulose. Obviously, hysteresis also has an origin at the molecular scale. Lastly, the hypothesis put forward here is supported by the swelling of bio-based materials that has been observed at high relative humidity and this study aims to identify a link between the mechanical (swelling/shrinking) of bio-based materials and their hygroscopic behavior. This leads to a better understanding of the hydro-mechanical coupling of these materials.

A new sustainable heterogenous catalyst for copper-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition reaction (CuAAC) was investigated. The preparation of the sustainable catalyst was carried out through the complexation reaction between the polysaccharide cellulose acetate backbone (CA) and copper(II) ions. The resulting complex [Cu(II)-CA] was fully characterized by using different spectroscopic methods such as FTIR, SEM, EDX, UV-Vis, and ICP analyses. The Cu(II)-CA complex exhibits a high activity in the CuAAC reaction for substituted alkynes and organic azides, leading to a selective synthesis of the corresponding 1,4-isomer 1,2,3-triazoles in water as solvent and working at room temperature. It is worth noting that this catalyst has several advantages from the sustainable chemistry point of view including no use of additives, biopolymer support, reactions carried out in water at room temperature, and easy recovery of the catalyst. These characteristics make it a potential candidate not only for the CuAAC reaction but also for other catalytic organic reactions.

Biologic scaffolds have become an attractive approach for repairing the infarcted myocardium and have been shown to facilitate constructive remodeling in injured tissues. This study aimed to investigate the possible utilization of bacterial cellulose membrane patch containing cocultured cells to limit the myocardium's post-infarction pathology. Myocardial infarction was induced by ligating the left anterior descending coronary artery in 45 Wistar rats, and patches with or without cells were attached to the hearts. After one week, the animals underwent echocardiography for assessing ejection fraction and left ventricular end-diastolic and end-systolic volumes. Following the patch formation, cocultured cells retained viability of >90% over 14 days in culture. The patch was applied to the myocardial surface of the infarcted area after staying 14 days in culture. Interestingly, the bacterial cellulose membrane without cellular treatment showed higher preservation of cardiac dimensions; however, we did not observe improvement in the left ventricular ejection fraction of this group compared to coculture treated membranes. Our results demonstrated an important role for bacterial cellulose in supporting cells known to produce cardioprotective soluble factors and may thus provide effective future therapeutic outcomes for patients suffering from ischemic heart disease.

Blackberry is a fruit that has high nutritional value, a factor that has expanded its consumption worldwide. However, due to the fragility of the fruits and the high incidence of postharvest diseases, the fruits have a short shelf life. Thus, the objective of this study was to evaluate whether the application of coatings based on microfibrillated cellulose (NC) and lemongrass essential oil (EO) nanoparticles can prolong the shelf life of blackberry fruits after harvest. EO-coated blackberry fruits at nanocellulose concentrations were analyzed as follows: 0; 0.2; 0.4; 0.6 and 0.8%, in addition to the control treatment of which neither essential oil nor nanocellulose was used, for each treatment five repetitions were used. The fruits were analyzed soon after the application of the cover and at three and six days after storage. Fruit quality was assessed by soluble solids (SS), titratable acidity (TA), pH, fresh weight loss (FWL) and colorimetric parameters such as luminosity, hue angle and fruit peel chroma. Coating on EO (1000 ppm) blackberries combined with NC at concentrations of 0.2, 0.4 and 0.6% is promising in preserving blackberry fruits and reducing the process color reversal, up to six days of storage. The 0.4% NC + 1000 ppm EO conjugated coating showed no SS changes in blackberry fruits during the six days of storage.

Over the past decades, research has escalated on the use of polylactic acid (PLA) as replacement for petroleum-based polymers. This is due to its valuable properties, such as renewability, biodegradability, biocompatibility and good thermomechanical properties. Despite possessing good mechanical properties comparable to conventional petroleum-based polymers, PLA suffers from some shortcomings such as low thermal resistance, heat distortion temperature and rate of crystallization, thus different fillers have been used to overcome these limitations. In the frame work of environmentally friendly processes and products, there has been growing interest on the use of cellulose nanomaterials viz. cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) and nanofibers (CNF) as natural fillers for PLA towards advanced applications other than short-term packaging and biomedical. Cellulosic nanomaterials are renewable in nature, biodegradable, eco-friendless and they possess high strength and stiffness. In the case of eco-friendly processes, various conventional processing techniques, such as melt extrusion, melt-spinning, and compression moulding, have been used to produce PLA composites. This review addresses the critical factors in the manufacturing of PLA-cellulosic nanomaterials by using conventional techniques and recent advances needed to promote and improve the dispersion of the cellulosic nanomaterials. Different aspects, including morphology, mechanical behavior and thermal properties, as well as comparisons of CNC- and CNF reinforced PLA, are also discussed

Cationised hemp cellulose was prepared by etherification with two quaternary ammonium salts: 3-chloro-2-hydroxypropyl trimethyl ammonium chloride (CHPTAC) and glycidyltrimethylammonium chloride (GTMAC) and examined for (i) the efficiency of Cr(VI) removal under acid mine-drainage (AMD) conditions, and (ii) antibacterial activity. Adsorbents were characterised by electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), CP-MAS ¹³C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, elemental composition and surface charge. FTIR and solid state ¹³C NMR confirmed the introduction of quaternary ammonium moieties on cellulose. ¹³C NMR also showed that cationisation decreased the degree of crystallisation and lateral dimensions of cellulose fibrils. Nevertheless, 47 % - 72% of Cr(VI) ions were removed from solutions at pH 4, by 0.1 g of CHPTAC and GTMAC-cationised cellulose, respectively. Adsorption kinetics followed the pseudo-second order model and isotherms were best described by the Freundlich and Dubinin-Radushkevich models. When GTMAC-modified cellulose was applied to AMD contaminated water (pH 2.7), however, Cr(VI) uptake removal decreased to 22% likely due to competition from Al and Fe ions. Nevertheless, cationised materials displayed considerable antibacterial effects, reducing the viability of Escherichia coli by up to 45 % after just 3 hours of exposure. Together, these results suggest that cationised cellulose can be applied in the treatment of Cr(VI)-contaminated mine water particularly if pre-treatments to reduce Fe and Al concentrations are applied.

The topic concerns the so far unknown mechanism of bubble effect in a large mass of moistured cellulose heated with mineral oil. The so far well-known phenomenon of bubble effect occurs in the Hot Spot area, i.e., in the place where the hot metal of the windings is in contact with the winding paper. As a result of presented in the article model tests, it was shown that cyclical heating of the transformer windings causes significant drying of the winding paper what reduces the possibility of bubble effect in the Hot Spot area, while there is a possibility of bubble effect appearing in large volume of pressboard heated with mineral oil. It has been shown that the pressure in the air cushion over oil surface, after the bubble effect starts in the pressboard, depends on the ratio of the mass of cellulose to the mass of oil: the greater the ratio, the greater the pressure in the air cushion. The ar-ticle presents the dependence of bubble effect initiation temperature in pressboard heated with oil on pressboard moisture.

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) hold immense therapeutic potential due to their regenerative and immunomodulatory properties. However, to utilize this potential, it is crucial to optimize their in vitro cultivation conditions. Three-dimensional (3D) culture methods using cell-laden hydrogels aim to mimic the physiological microenvironment in vitro, thus preserving MSC biological functionalities. Cellulosic hydrogels are particularly promising due to their biocompatibility, sustainability, and tunability in terms of chemical, morphological, and mechanical properties. This study investigated the impact of (1) two physical crosslinking scenarios for hydrogels derived from anionic cellulose nanofibers (CNF) used to encapsulate adipose-derived MSCs (adMSCs) and (2) physiological culture conditions on the in vitro proliferation, differentiation, and extracellular vesicle (EV) production of these adMSCs. Our results revealed that additional Ca2+-mediated crosslinking, intended to complement self-assembly and gelation of aqueous to-CNF in the adMSC cultivation medium, adversely affected both the mechanical properties of the hydrogel spheres and the growth of the encapsulated cells. However, cultivation under dynamic and hypoxic conditions significantly improved the proliferation and differentiation of the encapsulated adMSCs. Furthermore, we demonstrated that adMSCs in CNF hydrogel spheres exhibited potential for scalable EV production with potent immunosuppressive capacities in a bioreactor system. These findings underscore the importance of physiological culture conditions and the suitability of cellulosic materials for enhancing the therapeutic potential of MSCs. Overall, our study provides valuable insights for optimizing the in vitro cultivation of MSCs for various applications, including tissue engineering, drug testing, and EV-based therapies.

Dye/salt separation has gained increasing attention in recent years, prompting the quest for cost-effective and environmentally-friendly raw materials for synthesis high performance nanofiltration (NF) membrane for effective dye/salt separation. Herein, a high-performance loose structured NF membrane was fabricated by via a simple vacuum filtration method using a green nanomaterial, 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxide radical (TEMPO)-oxidized cellulose nanofiber (TOCNF), by sequentially filtrating larger-size and finer-size TOCNFs on a microporous substrate, followed by cross-linked with trimesoyl chloride. The resultant TCM membrane possesses a separating layer composed entirely of pure TOCNF, eliminating the need for other polymer or nanomaterials additives. TCM membranes exhibits high performance and effective dye/salt selectivity. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) analysis shows that the TCM membrane with Fine-TOCNF layer has a tight layered structure. Further characterizations via Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) confirm the presence of functional groups and chemical bonds of the crosslinked membrane. Notably, the optimized TCM-5 membrane exhibits a rejection rate of over 99% for various dyes (Congo red, orange yellow) and 14.2% for NaCl, showcasing a potential candidate for efficient dye wastewater treatment.

Hydrothermal carbonization of cellulose was examined at 240 ℃ for 1 h. Ammonium sulfate and thiourea were selected as the doping sources of inorganic nitrogen and organic nitrogen for the preparation of supercapacitor carbon. The effect of boric acid on the properties of the resulting hydrochar after KOH activation was examined. The results showed that the proportion of functional groups and the specific surface area of the activated hydrochar would be reduced after the addition of boric acid, and the pore-forming process of the micropores would be inhibited. The hydrochar obtained from the reaction of cellulose and organic nitrogen compounds had better pore size distribution and electrochemical properties after activation. The largest specific surface area (952.27 m2 g-1) was obtained when only thiourea was used as the only doping source. In the three-electrode system, the specific capacitance resulting activated hydrochar reached 236.25 F g-1 at a current density of 1 A g-1. After 20,000 cycles of charging and discharging at a current density of 10 A g-1, the capacitance retention rate reached 99.96%. Therefore, this study proves that the supercapacitor carbon with good electrochemical properties could be obtained by the direct reaction of cellulose with organic nitrogen compounds.

Due to their distinct physical, chemical, and biological characteristics, biopolymers, in particular Poly Ethylene Glycol (PEG) and Cellulose, are frequently used in biomedical medicine as drug or vaccine delivery systems. In this study, we have done a systematic review and a meta-analysis to compare current developments in many PEG and cellulose-based hydrogels, including double network hydrogels, injectable hydrogels, sliding hydrogels, conductive hydrogels, responsive hydrogels, and nanocomposite hydrogels. The pharmacokinetic properties, including physicochemical properties, biocompatibility, biodegradability, temperature, and pH, have been studied as these critical factors are to be considered for deciding the suitability of the drug for delivery. Moreover, the study has evaluated the controlled-release parameters such as half-life, circulation time, maximum release percentage of loaded drug released, burst release, maximum release, and drug-release kinetics. Finally, the efficacy and immune response of hydrogel was studied for future choice, including the cellulose hydrogel system in COVID-related long-term vaccine delivery. The finding revealed that cellulose-based hydrogel is effective for vaccine delivery.

Iron oxide nanoparticles have been investigated due to their suitable characteristics for diverse applications in the fields of biomedicine, electronics, water/wastewater treatment and sensors. Maghemite, magnetite and hematite are the most widely studied iron oxide particles and have ferrimagnetic characteristics. When very small, however, these particles have superparamagnetic properties and are called superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs). Several methods are used for the production of these particles, such as coprecipitation, thermal decomposition and microemulsion. However, the variables of the different types of synthesis must be assessed to achieve greater control over the particles produced. In some studies, it is possible to compare the influence of variations in the factors for production with each of these methods. Thus, researchers use different adaptations of synthesis based on each objective and type of application. With coprecipitation, it is possible to obtain smaller, more uniform particles with adjustments in temperature, pH and the types of reagents used in the process. With thermal decomposition, greater control is needed over time, temperature as well as the proportion of surfactants and organic and aqueous phases in order to produce smaller particles and a narrower size distribution. With the microemulsion process, the control of the confinement of the micelles formed during synthesis through the proportions of surfactant and oil makes the final particles smaller and less dispersed. These nanoparticles can be used as additives for the creation of new materials, such as magnetic bacterial cellulose, which has different innovative applications. Composites that have SPIONs, which are produced with greater rigour with regards to size and distribution, have superparamagnetic properties and can be used in medical applications, whereas materials containing larger particles have ferromagnetic applications. To arrive at a particular particle with specific characteristics, researchers must be attentive to both the mechanism selected and the production variables to ensure greater quality and control of the materials produced.

Corn starch-based nanocomposite films usually have low moisture barrier properties. The addition of virgin coconut oil (VCO) as a hydrophobic component can improve the nanocomposite film's characteristics, especially the film's permeability and elongation properties. This study aimed to determine the role of VCO with various concentrations (0,3,5 wt%) on the physical, mechanical, and water vapor transmission characteristics of corn starch/NCC-based nanocomposite films. The results showed that the concentration of 3 wt% VCO was most effective in reducing the WVTR value of nanocomposite films with a value of 4.721 g/m2.h. While the value of tensile strength was 4.243 MPa, elongation 68.58%, modulus of elasticity 0.062 MPa, thickness 0.219 mm, lightness 98.77, and water solubility 40.51%. However, the addition of 5 wt% VCO was more effective in increasing the elongation properties of the film. The addition of VCO gave the appearance of a porous film surface and a finer structure was formed. The FTIR test on corn starch nanocomposite films with the addition of VCO did not show any new absorption peaks. The results of this study may provide opportunities for the development of nanocomposite films as biodegradable packaging in the future.

Nanocomposites consisting of cerium based nanoparticles stabilized by carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) macromolecules were obtained using one-pot reaction at room tempera-ture. The characterization of the nanocomposites was carried out with the use of combina-tion of microscopy, XRD and IT-spectroscopy analysis. The type of crystal structure of in-organic nanoparticles corresponding to CeO2 has been determined and the mechanism of the nanoparticles formation was suggested. It was demonstrated that the size and shape of nanoparticles in the resulting nanocomposites does not depend on the ratio of the ini-tial reagents. Spherical particles with mean diameter 3 nm were obtained in different reac-tion mixtures. The scheme of the dual stabilization of CeO2 nanoparticles with carboxylate and hydroxyl groups of CMC. These findings are promising for the development and ap-plication of Ce-based nanoparticles materials.

The global development of bioeconomy is impossible without technologies for comprehensive processing of plant renewable resources. The use of proven pretreatment technologies raises the possibility of industrial implementation of enzymatic conversion of polysaccharides from lignocellulose considering the process complexity. For instance, a well-tuned kraft pulping produces a substrate easily degraded by cellulases and hemicelulases. Enzymatic hydrolysis of bleached hardwood kraft pulp was carried out using an enzyme complex of endoglucanases, cellobiohydrolases, b-glucosidases and xylanases produced by recombinant strains of Penicillium verruculosum at a 10 FPU/g mixture rate and a 10 % substrate concentration. As a result of biocatalysis the following products are obtained: sugar solution, mainly glucose, xylobiose, xylose, as well as other minor reducing sugars; modified complex based on cellulose and xylan. The composition of biomodified kraft pulp was determined involving the use of HPLC. The method for determining the degree of crystallinity on an X-ray diffractometer was used to characterize the properties. The article shows the possibility of producing modified cellulose cryogels by amorphization with concentrated 85 % H3PO4 followed by precipitation with water and supercritical drying. Analysis of the enzymatic hydrolysate composition reveals the predominance of glucose (55...67 %) in reducing sugars with a maximum content of up to 6 % in the solution after 72 hours. The properties and structure of modified kraft pulp were shown to change during biocatalysis, in particular, the degree of crystallinity increased by 5 % after 3 hours of enzymatic hydrolysis. We obtained cryogels based on the initial and biomodified kraft pulp with conversion rates of 35, 50 and 70 %. The properties of these cryogels are not inferior to those based on industrial microcrystalline cellulose, as confirmed by the specific surface area, degree of swelling, porosity and SEM images. Thus, kraft pulp enzymatic hydrolysis offers prospects not only for producing sugar-rich hydrolysates for microbiological synthesis, but also for producing cellulose powders and cryogels with specified properties.

There are various biomaterials in nature, but none fulfills all the requirements. Cellulose, eco-friendly material-based biopolymers, have been advanced biomedicine to satisfy most market demand and circumvent many ecological concerns. This review aims to present an overview of the state of the art in cellulose's knowledge and technical biomedical applications. It included an extensive bibliography of recent research findings for fundamental and applied investigations. The chemical structure of cellulose allows modifications and simple conjugation with several materials, including nanoparticles, without tedious efforts. Cellulose-based materials were used for biomedicine applications such as antibacterial agents, antifouling, wound healing, drug delivery, tissue engineering, and bone regeneration. They advanced the applications to be cheap, biocompatible, biodegradable, easy for shaping and processing into different forms, with suitable chemical, mechanical and physical properties.

Named herein “CytroCell”, the cellulosic material obtained via hydrodynamic cavitation of citrus processing waste in water is cellulose of low crystallinity, high porosity, good water holding capacity and good dispersibility in water. These properties, here demonstrated for the first time for lemon and grapefruit CytroCell, open the route to mass scale production of a useful functional material from a cheap and abundant biowaste. The process, indeed, does not require any pre-treatment of the raw material, and does not use acid, alkali, chemical oxidants or enzymes.

Preparation of a low-cost cellulose-based bioadsorbent from the cellulosic material extracted from the rose stems (CRS) was carried out; rose stems were considered agricultural wastes. After the required pretreatment of this waste, and its further treatment with an acidic mixture of acetic and nitric acids, the CRS product was yielded. The resulting bioadsorbent was characterized by several techniques, such as X-ray diffraction, which revealed diffraction maxima related to cellulose structure, whose calculated crystallinity index (CrI) was 75 %. In addition, Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), 13C Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR), and X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) showed signs of acetylation of the sample, also, the thermal properties of the solid was evaluated through Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA). Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) showed cellulose fibers before and after the adsorption process, some particles with not regular shapes were also observed. The CRS bioadsorbent was used in the effective adsorption of valuable Tb(III) from aqueous solution. The adsorption data resulted in a better fit to the Freundlich isotherm, and pseudo-second-order kinetic models; however, chemisorption had not been ruled out. Finally, desorption experiments revealed a recovery of terbium ions with an efficiency of 97 % from terbium-loaded bioadsorbent.

Increase demand for palm oil production has indirectly increased waste and pollution. Empty fruit bunch (EFB), which is the major solid waste from this industry, has the potential to be further treated into valuable product. In this study, cellulose will be extracted from EFB through alkali treatment and acid hydrolysis treatment with a different approach and further modified via acetylation and silylation technique. The modified samples are to be utilized to reduce pollution due to palm oil mill effluent (POME) and carbon dioxide (CO2) emission from the industry. The characterization of the extracted and modified cellulose was carried out using attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and scanning electron microscope (SEM). ATR-FTIR analysis revealed that the cellulose was successfully extracted from raw EFB and the cellulose-acetyl, nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC) and cellulose-2 has been successfully modified from the cellulose. TGA analysis shows that both modified cellulose have higher thermal stability compared to raw EFB and extracted cellulose. SEM morphology of the modified cellulose shows a higher surface area due to the wrinkled formation while the wax layer and cuticle pore has been diminished clearly. The modified sample gave a significant performance where cellulose-acetyl absorbed 98.5% of oil compared to unmodified cellulose-1 sample that only absorbed 5% of oil from POME. NCC-AEAPDMS adsorbed physically and chemically 3.5 cm3/g CO2 gas compared to NCC sample, which undergoes only physical adsorption with maximum capacity up to 2.4 cm3/g. Thus, modification can enhanced the performance of cellulose for industrial applications.

The application of nanotechnology to the petroleum industry has sparked recent interest to increase oil recovery while reducing environmental impact. Nanocellulose is an emerging nanoparticle that is derived from trees and may provide an environmentally friendly alternative to current enhanced oil recovery (EOR) technologies. However, before nanocellulose can be applied as an EOR technique, further understanding of its transport behavior and retention in porous media is required. The research documented in this paper examines retention mechanisms that occur during nanocellulose transport. In a series of experiments, nanocellulose particles dispersed in brine were injected into sandpacks and Berea sandstone cores. The resulting retention and permeability reduction were measured. The experimental parameters that were varied include sand grain size, nanocellulose type, salinity, and flow rate. Under low salinity conditions, the dominant retention mechanism was adsorption and when salinity was increased, the dominant retention mechanism shifted towards log-jamming. Retention and permeability reduction increased as grain size decreased, which results from increased straining of nanocellulose aggregates. In addition, each type of nanocellulose was found to have significantly different transport properties. The experiments with Berea sandstone cores indicate that some pore volume was inaccessible to the nanocellulose. As a general trend, the larger the size of aggregates in bulk solution, the greater the observed retention and permeability reduction. Salinity was found to be the most important parameter affecting transport. Increased salinity caused additional aggregation, which led to increased straining and filter cake formation. Higher flow rates were found to reduce retention and permeability reduction. Increased velocity was accompanied by an increase in shear which is believed to promote breakdown of nanocellulose aggregates.

Herein, we introduce a boron nitride nanosheet (BNNS)-reinforced cellulose nanofiber (CNF) film as a sustainable oxygen barrier film that can potentially be applied in food packaging. Most of commodity plastics are oxygen-permeable. CNF exhibits an ideal oxygen transmittance rate (OTR) of <1 cc/m²/day in highly controlled conditions. A CNF film typically fabricated by the air drying of a CNF aqueous solution reveals an OTR of 19.08 cc/m²/day. The addition of 0-5 wt% BNNS to the CNF dispersion before drying results in a composite film with highly improved OTR, 4.7 cc/m²/day, which is sufficient for meat and cheese packaging. BNNS as a 2D nanomaterial increases the pathway of oxygen gas and reduces the chances of pin-hole formation during film fabrication involving water drying. In addition, BNNS improves the mechanical properties of the CNF films (Young’s modulus and tensile strength) without significant elongation reductions, probably due to the good miscibility of CNF and BNNS in the aqueous solution. BNNS addition also produces negligible color change, which is important for film aesthetics. An in vitro cell experiment was performed to reveal the low cytotoxicity of the CNF/BNNS composite. This composite film has great potential as a sustainable high-performance food packaging material.

Biological pre-treatment holds much promise as an innovative and sustainable strategy to improve biogas production from crop residues. In the present study, a novel hot spring cellulolytic microbial consortium (HSCMC) was used to pre-treat crop residues, such as maize stover, wheat straw and soybean straw to improve biogas production by anaerobic digestion (AD). Results indicated that the ash and volatile solids in maize stover were significantly reduced by maximum values of 21.3 % and 69.2 % respectively, after 7 days of pre-treatment over non-treated residues. The maximum decline of 83.9 % in total solid content was reported in wheat straw. The total reducing sugar content was increased by maximum yields of 60.9 %, 96.3 % and 84.7 % in maize stover, wheat straw and soybean straw, respectively. Furthermore, the HSCMC consortium enhanced the cumulative methane yield of wheat straw, maize stover and soybean straw by 50.6 %, 50.2 % and 56.6 %, respectively. Increased methane yield from pre-treated crop residues implies that this method could be an economically viable option for large-scale valorization of the AD process.

Cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) are materials with high aspect ratio. Typically, TEMPO-oxidised, or cationic CNFs consist of long fibrils (up to 2 μm) with very low thickness (less than 10 nm). Derived from their high aspect ratio, CNFs form strong hydrogels with high elasticity at low concentrations. Thus, CNF suspensions appear as an interesting rheology modifier to be applied in cosmetics, paints, foods, as a mineral suspending agent, among other applications. The high viscosity results from the strong 3D fibril network, which is related to good fibrillation of the material, allowing the nanofibrils to overlap. The overlap concentration (c*) was found to vary from ca. 0.13 to ca. 0.60 wt.% depending on the type and intensity of the pre-treatment ap-plied during the preparation of the CNFs. The results confirm the higher tendency for the fibres treated with CHPTAC (cationic) and TEMPO to form a 3D network, resulting in the lowest c*. For the TEMPO-oxidised CNF suspensions, it was also found that aggregation is improved at acidic pH conditions due to lower charge repulsion among fibrils, leading to an increase in the suspension viscosity, as well as higher apparent yield stresses. TEMPO CNF suspensions with low content of carboxylic groups tend to precipitate at moderate acidic pH values.

The polysaccharide-based chiral stationary phase (CSP) columns for high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) were applied in the separation of liquid crystalline racemic mixtures obtained based on (R,S)-2-octanol and were found to be highly effective in recognizing isomers of minor structural differences. The mobile phase (MP), which consists of acetonitrile (ACN)/water (H2O) at different volume ratios, was used. All measurements were made at room temperature. The order of the elution was also determined. The chromatographic parameters such as resolution - (Rs), selectivity - (α), and the number of theoretical plates, i.e., column efficiency - (N), were determined. The polysaccharide-based CSP columns have unique advantages in separation technology, and this study has shown the potential usefulness of the CSP columns in separating liquid crystalline racemic mixtures belonging to the same homologous series.

An enormous interest in the development of efficient protocols for cellulose extraction has been demonstrated in the last years, however, they were usually based on non-sustainable chemical and thermal approaches. In this work we describe a new and more sustainable method for cellulose extraction from eucalyptus and pine tree wood waste products exclusively performed using microwave-assisted radiation. The methodology includes 3 main steps: i) alkaline treatment; ii) bleaching I, using H2O2; and iii) bleaching II, an acidic treatment. Samples obtained in each step were characterized by Fourier-transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The results were compared with those of starting materials, with the commercially available microcrystalline cellulose and with an industrial paper pulp. Results confirmed that for both type of wood wastes, cellulose was retained during the extractions procedures and that the removal of hemicellulose was achieved at the last step as seen by the FTIR spectra and TGA curves. The developed protocol is innovative since it constitutes an easy and quick approach to extract cellulose, from eucalyptus and pine tree wood waste using mild chemical and thermal conditions, microwave irradiation, and environmentally friendly purification steps. This approach offers the possibility of a future scale-up study to potentially apply the develop protocol to the extraction of cellulose in an industrial scale.

The involved components of formulated blending, CNF and CuO NPs, were individually obtained by using a biorefinery strategy for agricultural waste valorization together with an optimized chemical precipitation, assisted by ultrasounds. The optimization of synthesis parameters for CuO NPs have avoided the presence of undesirable species which usually requires of later thermal treatment with associated costs. The aerogels-based structure, obtained by conventional freeze-drying, acted as 3D support for CuO NPs providing a good dispersion within the cross-linked structure of the nanocellulose and facilitating direct contact of the antibacterial phase against undesirable microorganisms. All samples showed a positive response against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. An increase of the antibacterial response of the aerogels, measured by agar disk diffusion test, has been observed with the increase of CuO NPs incorporated, obtaining width of the antimicrobial “halo” (nwhalo) from 0 to 0.6 and 0.35 for S. aureus and E. coli, respectively. Furthermore, the aerogels have been able to deactivate S. aureus and E. coli in less than 5 hours when the antibacterial assays have been analyzed by broth dilution method. From CNF-50CuO samples, an overlap nanoparticles effect produced a decrease of the antimicrobial kinetic.

This research aimed to determine the effect of alkaline treatment on zalacca midrib fiber (ZMF) concerning various aspects such as thermal stability, crystallinity index, interfacial bonding, interfacial shear strength, water absorption capacity, as well as conducting Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). This investigation extended to evaluating the mechanical properties of composites enriched with microcrystalline cellulose with prosthetic socket materials available on the market. Subsequently, ZMF was obtained by splitting and soaking zalacca midrib for 12 hours. Each of ZMF was removed from the midrib and soaked in 5% sodium hydroxide for 3, 6, 9, and 12 hours. The composite material was molded by mixing 10% microcrystalline cellulose with a rotational speed of 150 rpm, maintaining a temperature of 40°C, and continuing the mixing process for 30 minutes. As a result of the alkaline treatment, several positive effects were observed, including increased fiber density, improved particle bonding, increased thermal compatibility, and cleaner fiber surfaces, attributed to reduced levels of hemicellulose, lignin, pectin, and other impurities as confirmed by SEM analysis. The microcrystalline cellulose added to the composite increased the interfacial shear strength, and tensile strength increased by 56.74%, composite flexural strength increased by 76.43%. The SEM analysis results showed that the composite with ZMF on the base fiber broke during the tensile test because fiber experienced an increase in interfacial bonding between fiber and the matrix. The water absorption test showed that untreated fiber had a higher level of absorption

When existing at emulsion interface and continuous phase, dispersibility of water-soluble flexible polymer chains has obvious effect on rheology and dielectric properties of whole emulsion. CNF Pickering emulsion is a good system to research these properties with respect to their microscopic phase structure, dielectric and rheological properties by using cellulose nanofibers (CNF) as water-soluble Pickering emulsifier, liquid Paraffin as oil phase and DDAB as a cationic auxiliary surfactant. The CNF- and DDAB-contents were systematically varied while the water to paraffin oil ratio remained constant to discern the influence of the Pickering emulsifiers. Polarized optical microscopic images revealed that the droplets have tendency to become smaller size for higher CNF content, but bigger size for higher DDAB content, which was proved by the fluorescent analysis for CNF dispersibility with varying DDAB content. The dielectric damping exhibits a minimum, whose value decreases with increasing DDAB- and CNF-content. Increasing the DDAB-content promotes solubilization of CNFs in the aqueous phase and will increase the overall viscosity and yield points. Similarly, a higher CNF-content leads to a higher viscosity and yield point, but at high DDAB-contents the viscosity function exhibits an S-shape at intermediate CNF-content. To evaluate the results further they were compared with CNF-dispersions (without oil-phase), which showed a surfactant effect slightly on maximum stress but strongly on yield stress τy, indicating DDAB can promote the formation of CNF network rather than the viscosity of whole system.

In this research, Cellulose Nanofibers (NFC) modified with a eutectic of lauric acid (LA) was prepared as a new form-stable phase change material (NFC-LA). Thermal properties of this composite were investigated by Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC). The results revealed that the melting temperature and latent heat of NFC/LA were 21.56 °C and 88.5 J/g, respectively; and the super cooling degree for the NFC-LA composite decreased to 13.99 °C when compared to 20.28 °C of the pure lauric acid. Natural clay was purified and modified with Cetyltrimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB) to prepare organoclay. Through FTIR spectra, we have confirmed that the clay was successfully modified. The PCM-composite was then added to the organoclay to obtain a new composite denoted NFC-LA-OC. this latter was added to cement and was investigated as a reinforcement material in cement mortars for thermal energy storage application. The prepared material can both solve the leakage problem associated to the phase change material, and reduce or even avoid the use of heating and air conditioning systems, which are energy-intensive systems, and therefore reduce energy consumption.

A multilevel factorial design of 23 with 12 experiments was developed for the preparation of cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) from Agave tequilana Weber var. Azul bagasse. The studied parameters were acid type (H2SO4 and HCl), acid concentration (60 and 65 wt% for H2SO4, 2 and 8N for HCl) temperature (40 and 60°C for H2SO4, 50 and 90°C for HCl), and hydrolysis time (40, 55 and 70 min for H2SO4, 30, 115 and 200 min for HCl). The obtained CNC were physical and chemically characterized using dynamic light scattering (DLS), atomic force microscopy (AFM), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and X-ray diffraction (XDR) techniques. The size and morphology of A. tequilana CNC strongly depend on the acid type and hydrolysis parameters. The shortest CNC were obtained with H2SO4 (65 wt%, 40 °C, and 70 min) had a length of 137 ± 68 nm, width 33 ± 7 nm, and height 9.1 nm, whereas the shortest CNC obtained with HCl (2 N, 50 °C and 30 min) had a length of 216 ± 73 nm, width 69 ± 17 nm, and height 8.9 nm. CNC prepared from H2SO4 resulted shorter and thinner than those obtained with HCl. The total sulfate groups content in CNC obtained with H2SO4 increase with time agree to CSG=aebt, and increases with temperature and acid concentration.

Antimicrobial and anti-viral materials have attracted significant interest in recent years due to increasing occurrences of nosocomial infections and pathogenic microbial contamination. One method to address this is the combination of photoactive compounds that can produce reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as hydrogen peroxide and hydroxyl radicals to disinfect microbes, with carrier materials that meet the application requirements. Using anthraquinone (AQ) and cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) as the photoactive and carrier components respectively, this work demonstrates the first covalent incorporation of AQ onto CNCs. The morphology and the photoactive properties were investigated, revealing the structural integrity of the CNCs, and high degree of photoactivity of AQ-CNC materials upon UVA exposure. The AQ-CNCs also exhibited an unexpected persistent generation of ROS under darkness, which adds advantages for antimicrobial applications.

Nowadays, the chemical industry is looking for sustainable chemicals to synthesize nanocomposite bio-based polyurethane foams, PUs, with the aim to replace the conventional petrochemical precursors. Some possibilities to increase the environmental sustainability in the synthesis of nanocomposite PUs include the use of chemicals and additives derived from renewable sources (such as vegetable oils or biomass wastes) which comprise an increasing wider base raw materials. Generally, sustainable PUs exhibit chemico-physical, mechanical and functional properties which are not comparable with those of PUs produced from petrochemical precursors. In order to enhance the performances as well as the bio-based aspect, the addition in the polyurethane formulation of renewable or natural fillers can be considered. Among these, walnut shells and cellulose are very popular wood-based waste and due to their chemical composition, carbohydrate, protein and/or fatty acid, can be used as reactive fillers in the synthesis of PUs, diatomite as natural inorganic nanoporous filler can be also evaluated to improve mechanical and thermal insulation properties of rigid PUs. In this respect, sustainable nanocomposite rigid PU foams are synthesized by using a cardanol-based Mannich polyol, MDI as isocyanate source, catalysts and surfactant to regulate the polymerization and blowing reactions, H2O as sustainable blowing agent and suitable amount (5wt%) of ultramilled walnut shell, cellulose and diatomite as filler. The effect of these fillers on the chemico-physical, morphological, mechanical and functional performances on PU foams has been analyzed.

This study aimed to characterize the antioxidant, mechanical and physical properties of chicken skin gelatin/CMC/Centella asiatica blended film. The influence of Centella asiatica at 0.3% and 0.7% on antioxidant activities; mechanical properties and physical properties of chicken skin gelatin/CMC/Centella asiatica film were investigated. Characterization of the blended films with 0.7% Centella asiatica extract shows higher antioxidant activities with a total phenolic content of 0.36 mg/g of GAE, DPPH of 89.26%, and reducing power of 0.80 nm compared to 0.3% Centella asiatica extract. The addition of 0.3% of Centella extract provide higher value in tensile strength (5.0 × 10⁻² MPa), elongation at break (281%), melting point (131.31 °C), transparency (0.86) but lower UV-light penetration. While the addition of 0.7% Centella extract contribute to higher value in WVP (1.13 × 10⁻⁴ g m⁻¹s⁻¹Pa⁻¹) and puncture test (0.06 N). There are no significant differences between functional groups obtained from this blended film as evaluated by FTIR analysis (p > 0.05). Furthermore, XRD analysis showed the addition of extract decrease the crystallinity of film. In conclusion, the incorporation of Centella asiatica extracts on film greatly increased antioxidant levels and improved some of the mechanical and physical properties of the film blends.

Immobilized metal ion affinity adsorbents have been widely used in separation technique to purify proteins. Due to the leakage of metal ion from the adsorbents, there is no metal ion affinity adsorbent for hemoperfusion has been applied to clinical trial. In this study, in order to prevent the leakage of Zn²⁺ loaded from cellulose beads based adsorbent, improve its stability and adsorption capacity for testosterone, Freeze-drying method was used to enhance the porosity of cellulose beads, improve the surface area of the cellulose beads and adsorption capacity for testosterone. Chitosan was used to coat the adsorbents for preventing the leakage of Zn²⁺ loaded and improve the adsorbent’s stability. Moreover, the factors affecting adsorption ability and some components in plasma were also investigated. The results indicate the adsorption ability of the adsorbent can be significantly improved by freeze-drying. After the adsorbent was coated with 0.02% chitosan solution, the highest adsorption percentage reached 48%. During adsorption, the Zn²⁺ concentration in plasma did not rise. In addition, the adsorption percentage for total proteins was below 15%. The results may be caused by the pore size and surface area of the adsorbent enlarged via freeze-drying, and the chitosan solution went into the pores and coated the outer and inner surface of the adsorbent. The adsorbent has a potential clinical application to remove testosterone in patients with recurrent and metastatic prostate cancer.

The objective of this study is to investigate the aquatic-toxic effects of glyoxal-containing cellulose ether with four different glyoxal concentrations (0, 1.4, 2.3 and 6.3%) in response to global chemical regulations, e.g., European Union Classification, Labeling and Packaging (EU CLP). Tests of the aquatic-toxic effects of glyoxal-containing cellulose ether on 11 freeze-dried microbial strains, Microcystis aeruginosa, Daphnia magna and zebrafish embryos were designed as an initial stage for toxicity screening, and were performed with the standardized toxicity test guidelines. Glyoxal-containing cellulose ether showed no significant toxic effects in the toxicity tests for the 11 freeze-dried microbial strains, Daphnia magna and zebrafish embryos. Alternatively, 6.3% glyoxal-containing cellulose ether led to more than a 60% reduction of Microcystis aeruginosa growth after 7 days of exposure. Approximately 10% developmental abnormalities (e.g., bent spine) in zebrafish embryos were also observed in the group exposed to 6.3% glyoxal-containing cellulose ether after 6 days of exposure. These results imply that <6.3% glyoxal-containing cellulose ether results in non-toxic effects on the acute toxicity of aquatic organisms. However, ≥6.3% glyoxal-containing cellulose ether may affect the health of aquatic organisms with long-term exposure. In order to better evaluate the eco-safety of cellulosic products contained in glyoxal, further studies regarding the toxic effects of glyoxal-containing cellulose ether with long-term exposure are required. The results from this study allow us to evaluate the auatic-toxic effects of glyoxal-containing cellulosic products, under EU chemical regulations, on the health of aquatic organisms.

In this contribution, the propylamine-functionalized cellulose (Cell-Pr-NH2) was employed as the catalyst in the three-component reaction between hydroxylamine hydrochloride, various type of aryl/heteroaryl aldehydes, ethyl acetoacetate/ethyl 4-chloroacetoacetate/ or ethyl 3-oxohexanoate. The results of these experiments were the formation of 3,4-disubstituted isoxazol-5(4H)-one heterocycles. The desired five-membered heterocyclic compounds were obtained in good to high yields at room temperature. The investigation of different solvents led us to the conclusion that water is the best solvent to perform the current one-pot, three-component reactions. Attempts to find the optimum catalyst loading clearly showed that 14 mg of Cell-Pr-NH2 seems to be sufficient to carry out the reactions. This method has highlighted some principles of green chemistry including less waste generation, atom economy, use of water as an environmentally friendly solvent, and energy saving. Purification without chromatographic methods, mild reaction conditions, simple work-up, low-cost reaction medium, saving time, and obtainable precursors are other notable features of this one-pot fashion.

The scientific community has explored new packaging materials due to environmental challenges and pollution from plastic waste. Bacterial cellulose (BC), produced by bacteria like Gluconaceto-bacter xylinus, shows high potential for food preservation due to its exceptional mechanical strength, high crystallinity, and effective barrier properties against gases and moisture, making it a promising alternative to conventional plastics. This review highlights recent advances in BC production, particularly agro-industrial residues, which reduce costs and enhance environmental sustainability. Incorporating antimicrobial agents into BC matrices has also led to active packaging solutions that extend food shelf life and improve safety. A bibliometric analysis reveals a significant increase in research on BC over the last decade, reflecting growing global interest. Key research themes include the development of BC-based composites and the exploration of their antimicrobial properties. Critical areas for future research include improving BC production's scalability and economic via-bility and its integration with other biopolymers. These developments emphasize BC's potential as a sustainable packaging material and its role in the circular economy through waste valorization.

Currently, petroleum-derived plastics are widely used. However, one of its main disadvantages is its low degradation time, which is not beneficial to the environment. Therefore, natural polymers are an alternative to overcome this obstacle. Among the natural polymers, starch can be highlighted. Thus, the objectives of our investigation were to obtain sisal nanofibers using low concentrations of acid solutions to produce and characterize corn starch nanocomposites reinforced with these nanofibers. The films were produced by a casting technique using commercial corn starch and glycerol as plasticizing agents; the nanofibers were obtained using acid hydrolysis. The films were subjected to tensile tests to evaluate their resulting mechanical behaviors. The results of X-ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy analyses revealed the possibility of obtaining cellulose nanofibers using a sulfuric acid concentration lower than that previously reported in the literature. The nanocomposites reinforced with plant nanofibers showed lower tensile stress and elongation characteristics than the matrices without nanofibers.

The stability and composting behaviour of monolayers and laminates of poly(lactic acid) (PLA) and starch with and without active extracts and cellulose fibres from rice straw (RS) were evaluated. The retrogradation of the starch throughout storage (1, 5, and 10 weeks) gave rise to stiffer and less extensible monolayers, with lower water vapour barrier capacity. In contrast, the PLA monolayers, with or without extract, did not show marked changes with storage. However, these changes were more attenuated in the bilayers that gained water vapour and oxygen barrier capacity during storage, maintaining the values of the different properties close to the initial range. The bioactivity of the active films exhibited a slight decrease during the storage, the antioxidant capacity being better preserved in the bilayers. All monolayer and bilayer films were fully composted within 90 days, but with different behaviour. The bilayer assembly enhanced the biodegradation of PLA whose monolayer exhibited a lag period of about 35 days. The active extract reduced biodegradation rate of both mono and bilayers but does not limit the material biodegradation within the time stablished in the Standard. Therefore, PLA-starch laminates, with or without the valorised fractions from RS, can be considered as biodegradable and stable materials for food packaging applications.

A novel chemically cross-linked hydrogel was prepared through the utilization of the nor-bornene (Nb)-methyl tetrazine (mTz) click reaction, derived from carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and alginate (Alg). The hydrogel was designed to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) from NIR-dye, indocyanine green (ICG) for a combined photothermal and photodynamic ther-apy (PTT/PDT). The cross-linking of Nb and mTz moieties occurred via an inverse elec-tron-demand Diels-Alder reaction under physiological conditions avoiding the need for a cata-lyst. The resulting hydrogels exhibited viscoelastic properties (G′ ~ 492-270 Pa) and high porosi-ty. The hydrogels were found to be injectable with tunable mechanical characteristics. The ICG encapsulated hydrogels demonstrated ROS generation ability under NIR exposure. The ROS production was investigated through DPBF assays to access photodynamic effect (with NIR irra-diation at 1-2W for 5-15 min). The temperature of the ICG-loaded hydrogels was also raised up-on the NIR irradiation to eradicate tumor cells photothermally. In vitro cytocompatibility as-sessments revealed the non-toxic nature of CMC-Nb and Alg-mTz towards HEK-293 cells. Fur-thermore, the ICG-loaded hydrogels effectively inhibited the metabolic activity of Hela cells following NIR exposure. This innovative hydrogel system holds promise for applications in combined PTT and PDT.

The global predicament of solid waste generation looms as a mounting crisis, profoundly impacting the world, particularly in developing nations. Each day, the world's population contributes millions of tonnes of municipal solid waste, with projections pointing toward further escalation in the coming years. This surge in waste, predominantly composed of cellulose-rich materials, correlates directly with heightened pollution, a threat that transcends borders and imperils humanity as a whole.To confront this ever-growing issue, cellulase, a potent hydrolytic enzyme capable of digesting cellulose, a chief component of solid waste, is explored as a potential solution. In this study, we harness cellulase enzymes derived from the digestive tracts of both Archachatina marginata and Oryctes rhinoceros larvae, employing them as biodegradation agents for cellulose-based waste materials.The cellulase enzymes are methodically isolated and partially purified via ammonium sulfate precipitation at 65% saturation. Their efficacy in breaking down a variety of waste categories, encompassing kitchen waste, leaves, paper, wood, and industrial waste, is meticulously assessed and benchmarked against carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), a well-established laboratory substrate. The study also ascertains the specific activity of these enzymes.Spectrophotometric analyses of the cellulase enzymes' actions on the diverse waste materials unveil intriguing results. Archachatina marginata and Oryctes rhinoceros larvae exhibit distinct performance metrics, registering percentage ranges of (11.04% - 28.31%) and (33.69% - 189.11%) on wood waste, (76.52% - 196%) and (108.56% - 567.01%) on paper waste, (78.57% - 148.14%) and (163.33% - 436.76%) on leaf waste, (57.16% - 179.95%) and (63.38% - 457.05%) on kitchen waste, and (59.95% - 77.51%) and (117.26% - 155.23%) on industrial waste, respectively. This study underscores the substantial biodegradation potential inherent in cellulase enzymes from both Oryctes rhinoceros larvae and Archachatina marginata when applied to diverse waste materials. While the rates and impacts of waste degradation vary between these sources, their promising contributions to waste management come into focus, offering sustainable and innovative approaches to tackle the pressing global challenge of solid waste proliferation.

This study focuses on the increased risk of high heat release and asphyxiation (toxic gas poisoning) in the event of a fire of polyurethane (PU) and MDF-based building materials, which are commonly used in building fires. Among them, polyurethane (PU) building materials are essential for buildings except in Europe and some other countries due to their excellent thermal insulation performance, but problems of short-term heat release and spread of toxic gases in the event of a fire continue to occur. To overcome these problems, researchers are actively working on introducing various flame retardants into building materials. Therefore, in this study, we produced a laboratory-sized (500mm*500mm) plate flame retardant board that can be utilized as a building material with a lower heat release rate and a lower toxicity index by mixing expanded graphite and ceramic binder as flame retardants in a main material based on the cellulose of waste paper by replacing the existing building materials with a hot-press method. According to the ISO-5660-1 test on the heat release rate of the plate flame retardant board, the THR value was 2.9 (MJ/m2) for 10 minutes, showing an effect of reducing the THR value by 36.3 (MJ/m2) compared to the THR value of 39.2 (MJ/m2) of the specimen made using only paper. In addition, the toxicity index of the flame retardant board was checked through the NES 713 test. As a result, the test specimen showed a toxicity index of 0.7, which is 2.4 lower than the toxicity index of 3.1 of MDF, which is utilized as a conventional building material. Based on the results of this study, the cellulose fire retardant board showed the effect of reducing the heat release rate and toxicity index of building materials in a building fire, which reduces the risk of rapid heat spread and smoke toxicity. This has the potential to improve the evacuation time (A-SET) of evacuees in fires. It is also important to show that recycling waste paper and utilizing it as the main material for building materials can be an alternative in terms of sustainable development.

In this paper, a polyacrylic elastomer latex with butyl acrylate (BA) as the core and methyl methacrylate (MMA) copolymerized with glycidyl methacrylate (GMA) as the shell, named poly(BA-MMA-GMA) (PBMG), was synthesized by seeded emulsion polymerization. Cellulose nanocrystal (CNC) was dispersed in the polyacrylic latex to prepare PBMG/CNC dispersions with different CNC contents. The dried product was mixed with polylactic acid (PLA) to fabricate PLA/PBMG/CNC blends. The addition of PBMG and PBMG/CNC improved the mechanical properties of the PLA matrix. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) was used to investigate the non-isothermal crystallization kinetics. The Avrami equation modified by Jeziorny, and the Ozawa, and Mo’s equations were used to analyze the nonisothermal crystallization kinetics of PLA and its blends. Analysis of crystallization halftime of nonisothermal conditions indicated that the overall rate of crystallization increased significantly at 1 wt% content of CNC. This seemed to result from the increase of nucleation density and the acceleration of segment movement in the presence of CNC component. This phenomenon was verified by polarizing microscope observation.

Novel effluent treatment solutions for dangerous organic pollutants are crucial worldwide. In recent years, chemical reduction using noble metal-based nanocatalysts and NaBH4, a reducing agent, has become common practice for eliminating organic contaminants from aquatic environments. We suggest a straightforward approach to synthesizing magnetic cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) modified with magnetite (Fe3O4) and silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) as a catalyst for organic contamination removal. Especially, Ag NPs were decorated on the CNC surface without reducing agents or stabilizers by reducing AgNO3. XRD, FE-SEM, TEM, EDX, VSM, BET, and zeta potential tests characterized the Ag/Fe3O4/CNC nanocomposite. The nanocomposite's catalytic activity was tested by eliminating 4-nitrophenol (4-NP) and organic dyes methylene blue (MB) and methyl orange (MO) in an aqueous solution at 25 oC. The Ag/Fe3O4/CNC nanocomposite reduced 4-NP and decolored these hazardous organic dyes in short time (2 to 5 min) using a tiny amount of catalyst (2.5 mg for 4-NP and 15 mg for MO and MB). The magnetic catalyst was removed and reused three times without losing catalytic activity. This work shows that the Ag/Fe3O4/CNC nanocomposite can chemically reduce harmful pollutants in effluent for environmental applications.

Bio-based packaging materials and efficient drug delivery systems are gaining attention, carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) is one of the most soluble cellulose derivatives, is a good candidate material due to its biocompatibility, biodegradability, and reproducibility. However, CMC-based films are lack of sufficient mechanical properties, limiting its widespread application. In this paper, the molecular interactions between CMC and additives with different molecular structures have been studied with rheological method. The additives are chitosan and cellulose derivatives including O-carboxymethylated chitosan (O-CMCh), N-2-hydroxypropyl-3-trimethylammonium-O-carboxymethyl chitosan (HTCMCh), hydroxypropyltrimethyl ammonium chloride chitosan (HACC), cellulose nanofibers (CNC), and cellulose nanofibers (CNF). The influencing factors, such as molecular structure, concentration of additives and temperature on the rheological properties were studied, which results revealed the information intermolecular interactions. Based on the rheological properties, several systems were selected to prepare films, which show very good transparency, wettability, mechanical properties, biodegradability, and cytotoxicity. These good characteristics of the selected films also proved the good biocompatibility of CMC and chitosan and cellulose derivatives. This work will provide an idea to prepare CMC-based food packaging and effective drug delivery materials with specific properties.

Extensive use of petrochemical plastic packaging leads to the greenhouse gas emission and con-tamination to soil and oceans, posing major threats to the ecosystem. The packaging needs, hence, are shifting to bioplastics with natural biodegradability. Lignocellulose, the biomass from forest and agriculture, can produce cellulose nanofibrils (CNF), a biodegradable material with ac-ceptable functional properties, that can make packaging among other products. CNF extracted from lignocellulosic wastes can lower the packaging carbon footprint and the production cost. Most of these low value feedstocks go to alternative applications, that make their use in CNF packaging competitive. To transfer the waste materials from current practices to the packaging production, it is imperative to assess their sustainability, encompassing environmental and eco-nomic impacts along with the feedstock physical and chemical properties. A consolidated over-view of these criteria is absent in the literature. This study performs an iterative literature review and presents thirteen attributes, delineating sustainability of lignocellulosic wastes for commer-cial CNF packaging production. These criteria data are gathered for the UK waste streams, and transformed into a quantitative matrix, evaluating the waste feedstock sustainability for CNF packaging production. The presented approach can be adopted to decision scenarios in bioplas-tics packaging conversion and waste management.

Soy protein isolate (SPI) based materials are abundant, biocompatible, renewable, and biodegradable. In order to improve the tensile strength (TS) of SPI films, we prepared a novel composite film modified with microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) and metal nanoclusters (NCs) in this research. The effects of the modification of MCC on the properties of SPI-Cu NCs and Zn NCs films were investigated. Attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy analyses and X-ray diffraction patterns characterized the strong interactions and reduction of the crystalline structure of the composite films. Scanning electron microscope showed the enhanced cross-linked and entangled structure of modified films. Compared with untreated SPI film, the tensile strength of the SPI-MCC-Cu and SPI-MCC-Zn films increased from 2.91 MPa to 13.95 and 6.52 MPa, respectively. Moreover, the results also indicated their favorable water resistance with higher water contact angle. Meanwhile, the composite films exhibited increased initial degradation temperatures, demonstrating their higher thermostability. The results suggested that MCC could effectively improve the performance of SPI-NCs films, which would provide a novel preparation method for environmentally friendly SPI-based films in the applications of packaging materials.

According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List, the scalloped hammerhead (Sphyrna lewini) is a critically endangered species, primarily due to intense fishing and other anthropogenic effects such as pollution. Nowadays, plastic debris contamination is a subject of concern due to its extensive presence in the sea and the digestive tracts of many fish species. The possible effects of plastic debris as a vector of other pollutants are still unknown. We analyzed the digestive tract of hammerhead sharks to investigate the correlation between plastic and other anthropic debris contamination and feeding habits in the eastern region of the Gulf of California. A total of 58 specimens were analyzed from the coastal area, revealing a plastic occurrence frequency of 79.3%. Of these, 91.4% corresponded to fibers, and 8.6% to fragments. The composition of the polymers was primarily cellulose (64.4%). According to their diet, these organisms exhibit benthopelagic habits, feeding both in the water column and on the seabed. These results indicate a high level of contamination of anthropogenic cellulosic microfibers in the area. This changed according to the year, indicating that the anthropic debris ingestion is related to the discharges of human activities and their seasonality rather than to a selection process by the sharks. Although cellulosic microfibers are recognized as a biomaterial, they can harm marine species, posing an additional threat to this iconic shark.

This work aimed to develop an anionic cellulose nanofiber (CNF) bio-adsorbent from palm date tree waste and to investigate its removal efficiency against cationic methylene blue dye from contaminated water. Palm date pulp was first prepared from palm date leaves through acid hydrolysis using H2SO4, followed by hydrolysis in a basic medium using KOH, in which the process completely removed the components of hemicellulose, lignin, and silica. To obtain anionic CNF, the resulting pulp was further treated with H2SO4, followed by centrifugation. Biogel formation of the CNF suspension was promoted by sonication, where its removal efficiency of methylene blue dye was studied as a function of dye concentration, temperature, contact time, and pH value. Two equilibrium models, the Langmuir and Freundlich models were employed, and the Langmuir model was found to be consistent with the experimental data. The highest removal efficiency was obtained at 60oC and was 5mg/gm. Furthermore, several kinetic models were used to gain insight into the adsorption mechanism. The pseudo-second-order model provided an accurate description of the adsorption process, while the Elovich equation suggested a chemical reaction between methylene blue dye and CNF. The study’s findings were in agreement with the pseudo-second-order model, indicating general chemical reactions. The study indicates that CNF adsorbents derived from renewable natural waste sources such as palm date leaves can be effective in removing cationic contaminants such as methylene blue dye.

Cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) are cellulose-derived nanomaterials that can be easily obtained, e.g., from vegetable wastes produced by circular economies. They show promising antimicrobial activity and the absence of side effects and toxicity. This study investigated the ability of CNCs to reduce microbial adherence and biofilm formation using in vitro microbiological models reproducing the oral environment. Microbial adherence by microbial strains of oral interest, Streptococcus mutans and Candida albicans was evaluated on the surfaces of salivary pellicle-coated enamel disks in the presence of different aqueous solutions of CNCs. The antibiofilm activity of the same CNC solutions was tested against S. mutans and an oral microcosm model based on mixed plaque inoculum using a continuous-flow bioreactor. Results showed an excellent anti-adherent activity of the CNCs against the tested strains from the lowest concentration tested (0.032 wt.%). Such activity was significantly higher against S. mutans than C. albicans, suggesting a selective anti-adherent activity against pathogenic strains. At the same time, there was a minimal albeit significant antibiofilm activity (at least 0.5 and 4 wt.% CNC solution for S. mutans and oral microcosm, respectively). This makes CNCs particularly interesting as anticaries agents, encouraging their use in the oral field.

Bone fractures are very common in the geriatric population and poses a great economic burden worldwide. While traditional methods for repairing bone defects have primarily been autografts, there are several drawbacks limiting its use. Bone graft substitutes have been used as alternative strategies to improve bone healing. However, there remains several impediments to achieving the desired healing outcomes. Injectable hydrogels have become attractive scaffold materials for bone regeneration given their high performance in filling irregularly sized bone defects, ability to encapsulate cells and bioactive molecules, and mimic the native ECM of bone. We investigated the use of an injectable chitosan-based hydrogel scaffold to promote differentiation of preosteoblasts in vitro. The hydrogels were characterized by evaluating cell homogeneity, cell viability, rheological and mechanical properties, and differentiation ability of preosteoblasts in hydrogel scaffolds. Cell-laden hydrogel scaffolds exhibited shear thinning behavior and the ability to maintain shape fidelity after injection. The CNC-CS hydrogels exhibited higher mechanical strength and significantly upregulated the osteogenic activity and differentiation of preosteoblasts as shown by ALP activity assays and histological analysis of hydrogel scaffolds. These results suggest that this injectable hydrogel is suitable for cell survival, can promote osteogenic differentiation of preosteoblasts, and structurally support new bone growth.

In this study, a slow-release urea fertilizer hydrogel was synthesized from hydroxyl propyl methyl cellulose, polyvinyl alcohol and glycerol blends with paper (blended paper) as second layer. The fertilizer hydrogel was characterized by SEM, XRD and FTIR. Its retention in sandy soil, swelling behavior in distilled and tap water as well as slow-release behavior to urea were investigated. The results indicated that the fertilizer had good slow-release properties and ability to retain water in soil. However, the addition of blended paper as a second layer matrix was found to help improve the release properties of the fertilizer. The swelling kinetic of the hydrogel followed the Schott’s Second order model. The release kinetics of urea in water was best described by the Zero order model signifying that the release behavior was independent of fertilizer concentration